{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,5]],"date-time":"2026-08-05T01:43:13Z","timestamp":1785894193909,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,22]],"date-time":"2017-12-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1513900800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","award":["SWU116060"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SWU116060"]}]},{"name":"the Chinese Scholarship Council","award":["201306350053"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["201306350053"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Herbicides may damage soybean in conventional production systems. Chlorophyll fluorescence imaging technology has been applied to identify herbicide stress in weed species a few days after application. In this study, greenhouse experiments followed by field experiments at five sites were conducted to investigate if the chlorophyll fluorescence imaging is capable of identifying herbicide stress in soybean shortly after application. Measurements were carried out from emergence until the three-to-four-leaf stage of the soybean plants. Results showed that maximal photosystem II (PS II) quantum yield and shoot dry biomass was significantly reduced in soybean by herbicides compared to the untreated control plants. The stress of PS II inhibiting herbicides occurred on the cotyledons of soybean and plants recovered after one week. The stress induced by DOXP synthase-, microtubule assembly-, or cell division-inhibitors was measured from the two-leaf stage until four-leaf stage of soybean. We could demonstrate that the chlorophyll fluorescence imaging technology is capable for detecting herbicide stress in soybean. The system can be applied under both greenhouse and field conditions. This helps farmers to select weed control strategies with less phytotoxicity in soybean and avoid yield losses due to herbicide stress.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18010021","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,22]],"date-time":"2017-12-22T05:50:19Z","timestamp":1513921819000},"page":"21","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":37,"title":["Early Identification of Herbicide Stress in Soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr.) Using Chlorophyll Fluorescence Imaging Technology"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Hui","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Engineering and Technology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, China"},{"name":"Institute of Phytomedicine, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4825-1875","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pei","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Engineering and Technology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400716, China"},{"name":"Institute of Phytomedicine, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jonas","family":"Weber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Phytomedicine, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roland","family":"Gerhards","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Phytomedicine, University of Hohenheim, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"FAOSTAT (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Statistics Division) (2016, October 29). Soybean Production of Commodity of the World. Available online: http:\/\/faostat3.fao.org\/browse\/Q\/QC\/E."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"922","DOI":"10.1017\/S0890037X00036484","article-title":"Response of soybean to combinations of clomazone, metribuzin, linuron, alachlor, and atrazine","volume":"6","author":"Salzman","year":"1992","journal-title":"Weed Technol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1614\/0890-037X(2002)016[0554:HEOVIL]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Herbicide effects on visible injury, leaf area, and yield of glyphosate-resistant soybean (Glycine max)","volume":"16","author":"Johnson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Weed Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1017\/S0043174500090895","article-title":"Estimated soybean (Glycine max) yield loss from herbicide damage using ground cover or rated stunting","volume":"46","author":"Donald","year":"1998","journal-title":"Weed Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.2134\/agronj1989.00021962008100040017x","article-title":"Dicamba injury to soybean","volume":"81","author":"Weidenhamer","year":"1989","journal-title":"Agron. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1017\/S0890037X00037635","article-title":"Soybean (Glycine max) tolerance to simulated drift of nicosulfuron and primisulfuron","volume":"7","author":"Bailey","year":"1993","journal-title":"Weed Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1017\/S0043174500051602","article-title":"Measuring herbicide injury to soybeans (Glycine max) using a radiometer","volume":"38","author":"Adcock","year":"1990","journal-title":"Weed Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1093\/jexbot\/51.345.659","article-title":"Chlorophyll fluorescence\u2014A practical guide","volume":"51","author":"Maxwell","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Exp. Bot."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Papageorgiou, G.C., and Govindjee, G. (2004). Pulse-amplitude-modulation (PAM) fluorometry and saturation pulse method: An overview. Chlorophyll a Fluorescence, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4020-3218-9"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plaphy.2015.02.019","article-title":"Using the quantum yields of photosystem II and the rate of net photosynthesis to monitor high irradiance and temperature stress in chrysanthemum (Dendranthema grandiflora)","volume":"90","author":"Janka","year":"2015","journal-title":"Plant Phys. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1017\/S0043174500062032","article-title":"Chlorophyll fluorescence assay for the determination of triazine resistance","volume":"29","author":"Ahrens","year":"1981","journal-title":"Weed Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3180.1981.tb00116.x","article-title":"Rapid detection of \u2018triazine resistant\u2019 weeds using chlorophyll fluorescence","volume":"21","author":"Ali","year":"1981","journal-title":"Weed Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1017\/S0043174500025856","article-title":"A method for identification of triazine resistant and susceptible biotypes of several weeds","volume":"29","author":"Hensley","year":"1981","journal-title":"Weed Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1017\/S0043174500075251","article-title":"Distribution of triazine-resistant smooth pigweed (Amaranthus hybridus) and common lambsquarters (Chenopodium album) in Virginia","volume":"36","author":"Vencill","year":"1988","journal-title":"Weed Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3180.1992.tb01908.x","article-title":"Use of fluorescence induction to diagnose resistance of Alopecurus myosuroides Huds. (black-grass) to chlorotoluron","volume":"32","year":"1992","journal-title":"Weed Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1111\/wre.12043","article-title":"Chlorophyll fluorescence imaging: A new method for rapid detection of herbicide resistance in Alopecurus myosuroides","volume":"53","author":"Kaiser","year":"2013","journal-title":"Weed Res."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1111\/wre.12226","article-title":"Leaf chlorophyll fluorescence discriminates herbicide resistance in Echinochloa species","volume":"56","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Weed Res."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cropro.2016.07.022","article-title":"Rapid in-season detection of herbicide resistant Alopecurus myosuroides using a mobile fluorescence imaging sensor","volume":"89","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Crop Prot."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"R Development Core Team (2008). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, R Foundation for Statistical Computing."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pestbp.2011.09.004","article-title":"Plant cell membrane as a marker for light-dependent and light-independent herbicide mechanisms of action","volume":"101","author":"Dayan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pestic. Biochem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pestbp.2012.01.005","article-title":"Chlorophyll fluorescence as a marker for herbicide mechanisms of action","volume":"102","author":"Dayan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pestic. Biochem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioelechem.2009.10.008","article-title":"Herbicides affect fluorescence and electron transfer activity of spinach chloroplasts, thylakoid membranes and isolated Photosystem II","volume":"79","author":"Ventrella","year":"2010","journal-title":"Bioelectrochemistry"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3180.1974.tb01035.x","article-title":"Differences in the tolerance of metribuzin by varieties of soybeans","volume":"14","author":"Hardcastle","year":"1974","journal-title":"Weed Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.2134\/agronj1976.00021962006800020037x","article-title":"Screening soybeans for tolerance to metribuzin","volume":"68","author":"Barrentine","year":"1976","journal-title":"Agron. J."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1425","DOI":"10.1021\/jf00126a052","article-title":"Metribuzin metabolism in soybeans. Characterization of the intraspecific differential tolerance","volume":"32","author":"Falb","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-3054.1997.tb01049.x","article-title":"Two independent biochemical pathways for isopentenyl diphosphate and isoprenoid biosynthesis in higher plants","volume":"101","author":"Lichtenthaler","year":"1997","journal-title":"Physiol. Plantarum"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.arplant.50.1.47","article-title":"The 1-deoxy-d-xylulose-5-phosphate pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis in plants","volume":"50","author":"Lichtenthaler","year":"1999","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Plant Biol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1960","DOI":"10.1091\/mbc.e03-07-0530","article-title":"Dinitroanilines bind \u03b1-tubulin to disrupt microtubules","volume":"15","author":"Morrissette","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1016\/0048-3575(72)90039-9","article-title":"Inhibition of photosynthesis and respiration by substituted 2, 6-dinitroaniline herbicides: I. Effects on chloroplast and mitochondrial activities","volume":"2","author":"Moreland","year":"1972","journal-title":"Pestic. Biochem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1016\/0048-3575(72)90040-5","article-title":"Inhibition of photosynthesis and respiration by substituted 2, 6-dinitroaniline herbicides: II. Effects on responses in excised plant tissues and treated seedlings","volume":"2","author":"Moreland","year":"1972","journal-title":"Pestic. Biochem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1584\/jpestics.28.324","article-title":"Mode of action for chloroacetamides and functionally related compounds","volume":"28","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Pestic. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/0048-3575(87)90027-7","article-title":"Primary effects of chloroacetamides","volume":"28","author":"Weisshaar","year":"1987","journal-title":"Pestic. Biochem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-3054.1997.tb03449.x","article-title":"Mechanistic aspects of xanthophylls cycle-dependent photoprotection in higher plant chloroplasts and leaves","volume":"99","author":"Gilmore","year":"1997","journal-title":"Physiol Plant"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/1\/21\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T18:55:05Z","timestamp":1760208905000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/1\/21"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,22]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s18010021"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18010021","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2017,12,22]]}}}