{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,14]],"date-time":"2026-03-14T18:01:06Z","timestamp":1773511266112,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,4]],"date-time":"2018-01-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1515024000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61505041"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61505041"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Heilongjiang Province of China","award":["F2015011"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["F2015011"]}]},{"name":"Financial Grant from the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","award":["2014M560262; 2015T80350"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2014M560262; 2015T80350"]}]},{"name":"Financial Grant from the Heilongjiang Province Postdoctoral Foundation","award":["LBH-Z14074; LBH-TZ0602"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LBH-Z14074; LBH-TZ0602"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Application Technology Research and Development Projects of Harbin","award":["2016RAQXJ140"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2016RAQXJ140"]}]},{"name":"National Science Foundation (NSF) ERC MIRTHE award"},{"name":"Robert Welch Foundation","award":["C-4925U"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["C-4925U"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A highly sensitive carbon monoxide (CO) trace gas sensor based on quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy (QEPAS) was demonstrated. A high-power distributed feedback (DFB), continuous wave (CW) 2.33 \u03bcm diode laser with an 8.8 mW output power was used as the QEPAS excitation source. By optimizing the modulation depth and adding an optimum micro-resonator, compared to a bare quartz tuning fork (QTF), a 10-fold enhancement of the CO-QEPAS signal amplitude was achieved. When water vapor acting as a vibrational transfer catalyst was added to the target gas, the signal was further increased by a factor of ~7. A minimum detection limit (MDL) of 11.2 ppm and a calculated normalized noise equivalent absorption (NNEA) coefficient of 1.8 \u00d7 10\u22125 cm\u22121W\/\u221aHz were obtained for the reported CO-QEPAS sensor.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18010122","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,4]],"date-time":"2018-01-04T11:52:47Z","timestamp":1515066767000},"page":"122","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["High-Power DFB Diode Laser-Based CO-QEPAS Sensor: Optimization and Performance"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9788-7984","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yufei","family":"Ma","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Tunable Laser, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yao","family":"Tong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Tunable Laser, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ying","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Tunable Laser, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xin","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Tunable Laser, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2245-7565","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Frank","family":"Tittel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1126\/science.224.4644.54","article-title":"Carbon Monoxide in the earth\u2019s atmosphere: Increasing trend","volume":"224","author":"Khalil","year":"1984","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1007\/s00340-007-2925-y","article-title":"CO2 concentration and temperature sensor for combustion gases using diode-laser absorption near 2.7 \u03bcm","volume":"90","author":"Farooq","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1140","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.156.4.96-08056","article-title":"Increased carbon monoxide in exhaled air of asthmatic patients","volume":"156","author":"Zayasu","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.116.4.1007","article-title":"Exhaled carbon monoxide levels elevated in diabetes and correlated with glucose concentration in blood: A new test for monitoring the disease?","volume":"116","author":"Paredi","year":"1999","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1442-200X.2001.01412.x","article-title":"End-tidal carbon monoxide is predictive for neonatal non-hemolytic hyperbilirubinemia","volume":"43","author":"Okuyama","year":"2001","journal-title":"Pediatr. Int."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1603","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199811263392206","article-title":"Carbon monoxide poisoning","volume":"339","author":"Ernst","year":"1998","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1902","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.27.001902","article-title":"Quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy","volume":"27","author":"Kosterev","year":"2002","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/s00340-017-6717-8","article-title":"Off-beam quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy-based sensor for hydrogen sulfide trace gas detection using a mode-hop-free external cavity quantum cascade laser","volume":"123","author":"Helman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"091114","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4867268","article-title":"Intracavity quartz-enhanced photoacoustic sensor","volume":"104","author":"Borri","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4202","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.54.004202","article-title":"Modeling and implementation of a fiber-based quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy system","volume":"54","author":"Dong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"091115","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4943233","article-title":"Compact all-fiber quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy sensor with a 30.72 kHz quartz tuning fork and spatially resolved trace gas detection","volume":"108","author":"Ma","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Starecki, T., and Wieczorek, P.Z. (2017). A high sensitivity preamplifier for quartz tuning forks in QEPAS (quartz enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy) applications. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17112528"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1007\/s00340-015-6037-9","article-title":"An electrically and optically cooperated QEPAS device for highly integrated gas sensors","volume":"119","author":"Schade","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1007\/s00340-017-6799-3","article-title":"QEPAS with electrical co-excitation for photoacoustic measurements in fluctuating background gases","volume":"123","author":"Mordmueller","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"021106","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4927057","article-title":"Multi-quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy","volume":"107","author":"Ma","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1007\/s00340-017-6640-z","article-title":"Theoretical analysis of a resonant quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy sensor","volume":"123","author":"Aoust","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2016.04.114","article-title":"HCl ppb-level detection based on QEPAS sensor using a low resonance frequency quartz tuning fork","volume":"233","author":"Ma","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6559","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.24.006559","article-title":"Compact quantum cascade laser based quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy sensor system for detection of carbon disulfide","volume":"24","author":"Waclawek","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4143","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.24.004143","article-title":"Quartz-enhanced photoacoustic detection of ethylene using a 10.5 \u03bcm quantum cascade laser","volume":"24","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101109","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4914896","article-title":"Short-lived species detection of nitrous acid by external-cavity quantum cascade laser based quartz-enhanced photoacoustic absorption spectroscopy","volume":"106","author":"Yi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optcom.2014.12.001","article-title":"Quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy of HCN from 6433 to 6613 cm\u22121","volume":"340","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Opt. Commun."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infrared.2015.01.016","article-title":"Compact sensor for methane detection in the mid infrared region based on quartz enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy","volume":"69","author":"Triki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Infrared Phys. Technol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241102","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5003121","article-title":"Long distance, distributed gas sensing based on micro-nano fiber evanescent wave quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy","volume":"111","author":"He","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1007\/s00340-012-4949-1","article-title":"Ultra-sensitive carbon monoxide detection by using EC-QCL based quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy","volume":"107","author":"Dong","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.21.001008","article-title":"QEPAS based ppb-level detection of CO and N2O using a high power CW DFB-QCL","volume":"21","author":"Ma","year":"2013","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"631","article-title":"Compact portable QEPAS multi-gas sensor","volume":"7945","author":"Dong","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"055401","DOI":"10.1088\/2040-8978\/17\/5\/055401","article-title":"Sensitive detection of carbon monoxide based on a QEPAS sensor with a 2.3 \u03bcm fiber-coupled antimonide diode laser","volume":"17","author":"Ma","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Opt."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"031107","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4974483","article-title":"Ultra-high sensitive acetylene detection using quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy with a fiber amplified diode laser and a 30.72 kHz quartz tuning fork","volume":"110","author":"Ma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2013.07.002","article-title":"The HITRAN 2012 molecular spectroscopic database","volume":"130","author":"Rothman","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1088\/1674-1056\/24\/1\/014206","article-title":"A quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy sensor for measurement of water vapor concentration in the air","volume":"24","author":"Gong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Chin. Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1594","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.34.001594","article-title":"Off-beam quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy","volume":"34","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"96200F","article-title":"Ammonia sensor based on QEPAS with HC-PBF as reference cell","volume":"9620","author":"Jiang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infrared.2005.09.001","article-title":"Wavelength modulation photoacoustic spectroscopy: Theoretical description and experimental results","volume":"48","author":"Schilt","year":"2006","journal-title":"Infrared Phys. Technol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29356","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.25.029356","article-title":"Ppb-level detection of ammonia based on QEPAS using a power amplified laser and a low resonance frequency quartz tuning fork","volume":"25","author":"Ma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00692448","article-title":"Second-Harmonic Detection with tunable diode lasers-comparison of experiment and theory","volume":"26","author":"Reid","year":"1981","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. B"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/1\/122\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T14:50:04Z","timestamp":1760194204000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/1\/122"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,4]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s18010122"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18010122","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,4]]}}}