{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T03:56:09Z","timestamp":1760241369197,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,15]],"date-time":"2018-01-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1515974400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The high demand for multimedia applications in environmental monitoring, invasion detection, and disaster aid has led to the rise of wireless sensor network (WSN). With the increase of reliability and diversity of information streams, the higher requirements on throughput and quality of service (QoS) have been put forward in data transmission between two sensor nodes. However, lower spectral efficiency becomes a bottleneck in non-line-of-sight (NLOS) transmission of WSN. This paper proposes a novel nondata-aided error vector magnitude based adaptive modulation (NDA-EVM-AM) to solve the problem. NDA-EVM is considered as a new metric to evaluate the quality of NLOS link for adaptive modulation in WSN. By modeling the NLOS scenario as the     \u03b7 \u2212 \u03bc     fading channel, a closed-form expression for the NDA-EVM of multilevel quadrature amplitude modulation (MQAM) signals over the     \u03b7 \u2212 \u03bc     fading channel is derived, and the relationship between SER and NDA-EVM is also formulated. Based on these results, NDA-EVM state machine is designed for adaptation strategy. The algorithmic complexity of NDA-EVM-AM is analyzed and the outage capacity of NDA-EVM-AM in an NLOS scenario is also given. The performances of NDA-EVM-AM are compared by simulation, and the results show that NDA-EVM-AM is an effective technique to be used in the NLOS scenarios of WSN. This technique can accurately reflect the channel variations and efficiently adjust modulation order to better match the channel conditions, hence, obtaining better performance in average spectral efficiency.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18010229","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,15]],"date-time":"2018-01-15T12:30:36Z","timestamp":1516019436000},"page":"229","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["A Novel Adaptive Modulation Based on Nondata-Aided Error Vector Magnitude in Non-Line-Of-Sight Condition of Wireless Sensor Network"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Fan","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Communication Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China"},{"name":"Chongqing Jinmei Communication Co. Ltd., Chongqing 400030, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaoping","family":"Zeng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Communication Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Haiwei","family":"Mao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Communication Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xin","family":"Jian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Communication Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaoheng","family":"Tan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Communication Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Derong","family":"Du","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Communication Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17572","DOI":"10.3390\/s150717572","article-title":"Wireless Sensor Network Optimization: Multi-Objective Paradigm","volume":"15","author":"Iqbal","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2292","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2008.04.002","article-title":"Wireless sensor network survey","volume":"52","author":"Yick","year":"2008","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"9","article-title":"Application based study on wireless sensor network","volume":"21","author":"Maraiya","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, S.H. (2014). Wireless Sensor Networks: Principles, Design and Applications, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4471-5505-8"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jafri, M.R., Ahmed, S., Javaid, N., Ahmad, Z., and Qureshi, R. (2013, January 28\u201330). Amctd: Adaptive mobility of courier nodes in threshold-optimized dbr protocol for underwater wireless sensor networks. Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Broadband and Wireless Computing, Communication and Applications (BWCCA), Compiegne, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/BWCCA.2013.24"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chilamkurti, N., Zeadally, S., and Chaouchi, H. (2013). Next-Generation Wireless Technologies: 4G and Beyond, Springer Science & Business Media.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4471-5164-7"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"118","article-title":"Rate Adaptation by Estimating Channel Quality in IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN","volume":"45","author":"Kim","year":"2012","journal-title":"Comput. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marabissi, D., Tarchi, D., Genovese, F., and Fantacci, R. (2007, January 26\u201330). Adaptive modulation in wireless OFDMA systems with finite state modeling. Proceedings of the Global Telecommunications Conference, Washington, DC, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOCOM.2007.988"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Tan, K., Zhao, J., Wu, H., and Zhang, Y. (2008, January 13\u201318). A practical SNR-guided rate adaptation. Proceedings of the 27th Conference on Computer Communications, Phoenix, AZ, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOM.2008.274"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.2478\/v10177-012-0038-y","article-title":"On a New Approach to SNR Estimation of BPSK Signals","volume":"58","author":"Moazzeni","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Electron. Telecommun."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"7","article-title":"Evaluation of SNR for AWGN Rayleigh and Rician Fading Channels under DPSK Modulation Scheme with Constant BER","volume":"3","author":"Chy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Wirel. Commun. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2238","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2015.2490667","article-title":"IAPS: Interference aware power saving for high-efficiency wireless LANs in dense networks","volume":"19","author":"Lee","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Lett."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lye, S.C.K., Arifianto, M.S., Yew, H.T., Liau, C.F., and Teo, K.T.K. (2012, January 29\u201331). Performance of signal-to-noise ratio estimator with adaptive modulation. Proceedings of the Modelling Symposium (AMS), Bali, Indonesia.","DOI":"10.1109\/AMS.2012.40"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2003.810970","article-title":"Optimum mode-switching-assisted constant-power single-and multicarrier adaptive modulation","volume":"52","author":"Choi","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1161","DOI":"10.1002\/wcm.1168","article-title":"Variable-rate adaptive modulation with optimum switching thresholds for cooperative systems with relay selection","volume":"13","author":"Torabi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Wirel. Commun. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1109\/MAP.2007.370983","article-title":"The \u03ba-\u03bc distribution and the \u03b7-\u03bc distribution","volume":"49","author":"Yacoub","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Antennas Propag. Mag."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Biswas, N., Ghoslr, B., and Chandra, A. (2013, January 11\u201312). Energy efficient relay node placement in a eta-mu fading channel. Proceedings of the Information & Communication Technologies (ICT), Tamil Nadu, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/CICT.2013.6558208"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahmoud, H.A., and Arslan, H. (2009). Error vector magnitude to SNR conversion for nondata-aided receivers. IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun., 8.","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2009.080862"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Acar, E., Ozev, S., and Redmond, K.B. (2006, January 5\u20139). Enhanced error vector magnitude (EVM) measurements for testing WLAN transceivers. Proceedings of the Computer-Aided Design, San Jose, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCAD.2006.320138"},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Sen, S., Santhapuri, N., Choudhury, R.R., and Nelakuditi, S. (2010, January 28\u201330). In AccuRate: Constellation Based Rate Estimation in Wireless Networks. Proceedings of the 7th USENIX Conference on Networked Systems Design and Implementation, San Jose, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2223","DOI":"10.1109\/26.392965","article-title":"Variable rate QAM for mobile radio","volume":"43","author":"Webb","year":"1995","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1856","DOI":"10.1109\/26.809706","article-title":"Effect of channel estimation error on M-QAM BER performance in Rayleigh fading","volume":"47","author":"Tang","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Trans."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Proakis, J.G. (2001). Digital Communications, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ermolova, N.Y. (2008). Moment generating functions of the generalized \u03b7-\u03bc and k-\u03bc distributions and their applications to performance evaluations of communication systems. IEEE Commun. Lett., 12.","DOI":"10.1109\/LCOMM.2008.080365"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peppas, K., Lazarakis, F., Alexandridis, A., and Dangakis, K. (2009). Error performance of digital modulation schemes with MRC diversity reception over \u03b7-\u03bc fading channels. IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun., 8.","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2009.081687"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3158","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2011.081011.102134","article-title":"Bivariate \u03b7-\u03bc fading distribution with application to analysis of diversity systems","volume":"10","author":"Ermolova","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2747","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2012.071912.110311","article-title":"The asymptotic distribution of maxima of independent and identically distributed sums of correlated or non-identical gamma random variables and its applications","volume":"60","author":"Kalyani","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"279","article-title":"Multiple hypergeometric functions and applications","volume":"27","author":"Exton","year":"1976","journal-title":"Siam Rev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goldsmith, A. (2005). Wireless Communications, Cambridge University Press.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511841224"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"819","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2008.060774","article-title":"Second-order statistics of \u03b7-\u03bc fading channels: Theory and applications","volume":"7","author":"Yacoub","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1109\/LPT.2011.2172405","article-title":"Error Vector Magnitude as a Performance Measure for Advanced Modulation Formats","volume":"24","author":"Schmogrow","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Gradshteyn, I.S., and Ryzhik, I.M. (2007). Table of Integrals, Series and Products, Academic Press. [7th ed.]."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/1\/229\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T14:51:17Z","timestamp":1760194277000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/1\/229"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,15]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s18010229"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18010229","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,15]]}}}