{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,15]],"date-time":"2026-04-15T08:48:09Z","timestamp":1776242889595,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,3,23]],"date-time":"2018-03-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1521763200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The design and validation of a continuously stretchable and flexible skin sensor for collaborative robotic applications is outlined. The skin consists of a PDMS skin doped with Carbon Nanotubes and the addition of conductive fabric, connected by only five wires to a simple microcontroller. The accuracy is characterized in position as well as force, and the skin is also tested under uniaxial stretch. There are also two examples of practical implementations in collaborative robotic applications. The stationary position estimate has an RMSE of     7.02     mm, and the sensor error stays within     2.5 \u00b1 1.5     mm even under stretch. The skin consistently provides an emergency stop command at only     0.5     N of force and is shown to maintain a collaboration force of 10 N in a collaborative control experiment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18040953","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,4]],"date-time":"2018-04-04T03:43:51Z","timestamp":1522813431000},"page":"953","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":33,"title":["Stretchable, Flexible, Scalable Smart Skin Sensors for Robotic Position and Force Estimation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1552-0669","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John","family":"O\u2019Neill","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, 111 Church St SE, Minneapolis, MN 55401, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jason","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, 111 Church St SE, Minneapolis, MN 55401, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rodney","family":"Dockter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, 111 Church St SE, Minneapolis, MN 55401, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6596-3324","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Timothy","family":"Kowalewski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, 111 Church St SE, Minneapolis, MN 55401, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,3,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1507","DOI":"10.1177\/0278364909343970","article-title":"Requirements for safe robots: Measurements, analysis and new insights","volume":"28","author":"Haddadin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Int. J. Robot. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1109\/TRO.2009.2033627","article-title":"Tactile sensing\u2013from humans to humanoids","volume":"26","author":"Dahiya","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calandra, R., Ivaldi, S., and Deisenroth, M.P. (2015, January 3\u20135). Learning torque control in presence of contacts using tactile sensing from robot skin. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE-RAS 15th International Conference on Humanoid Robots (Humanoids), Seoul, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/HUMANOIDS.2015.7363429"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Calandra, R., Ivaldi, S., Deisenroth, M.P., Rueckert, E., and Peters, J. (2015, January 26\u201330). Learning inverse dynamics models with contacts. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2015.7139638"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2016.2548800","article-title":"Skinning a robot: Design methodologies for large-scale robot skin","volume":"23","author":"Maiolino","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Mag."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ju, Z., Yang, C., and Ma, H. (2014, January 28\u201330). Kinematics modeling and experimental verification of baxter robot. Proceedings of the 2014 33rd Chinese Control Conference (CCC), Nanjing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ChiCC.2014.6896430"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petit, A., Ficuciello, F., Fontanelli, G.A., Villani, L., and Siciliano, B. (2017, January 26\u201328). Using Physical Modeling and RGB-D Registration for Contact Force Sensing on Deformable Objects. Proceedings of the ICINCO 2017-14th International Conference on Informatics in Control, Automation and Robotics, Madrid, Spain.","DOI":"10.5220\/0006415900240033"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Falco, P., Lu, S., Cirillo, A., Natale, C., Pirozzi, S., and Lee, D. (June, January 29). Cross-modal visuo-tactile object recognition using robotic active exploration. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Singapore.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2017.7989619"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Albini, A., Denei, S., and Cannata, G. (2017, January 24\u201328). Towards autonomous robotic skin spatial calibration: A framework based on vision and self-touch. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2017.8202151"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Albini, A., Denei, S., and Cannata, G. (2017, January 24\u201328). Human hand recognition from robotic skin measurements in human-robot physical interactions. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2017.8206300"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Kim, J.H., Lee, J.I., Lee, H.J., Park, Y.K., Kim, M.S., and Kang, D.I. (2005, January 18\u201322). Design of Flexible Tactile Sensor Based on Three-Component Force and Its Fabrication. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Barcelona, Spain."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ulmen, J., and Cutkosky, M. (2010, January 3\u20137). A Robust, Low-Cost and Low-Noise Artificial Skin for Human-Friendly Robots. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Anchorage, AK, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.2010.5509295"},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Shan, J.H., Mei, T., Sun, L., Kong, D.Y., Zhang, Z.Y., Ni, L., Meng, M., and Chu, J.R. (2005, January 2\u20136). The Design and Fabrication of a Flexible Three-Dimensional Force Sensor Skin. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Edmonton, AB, Canada."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"1","article-title":"A Flexible Piezoelectric Force Sensor Based on PVDF Fabrics","volume":"20","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"IOP Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, H., Song, X., Nanayakkara, T., Seneviratne, L.D., and Althoefer, K. (2012, January 14\u201318). A computationally fast algorithm for local contact shape and pose classification using a tactile array sensor. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Saint Paul, MN, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2012.6224872"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.robot.2015.01.009","article-title":"A real-time data acquisition and processing framework for large-scale robot skin","volume":"68","author":"Youssefi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Robot. Auton. Syst."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Choi, B., Choi, H.R., and Kang, S. (2005, January 2\u20136). Development of Tactile Sensor for Detecting Contact Force and Slip. Proceedings of the IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on IEEE Intelligent Robots and Systems, Edmonton, AB, Canada."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Papakostas, T.V., Lima, J., and Lowe, M. (2002, January 12\u201314). A large area force sensor for smart skin applications. Proceedings of the IEEE Sensors, Orlando, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12020","DOI":"10.1021\/nn505953t","article-title":"Tactile-direction-sensitive and stretchable electronic skins based on human-skin-inspired interlocked microstructures","volume":"8","author":"Park","year":"2014","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tomo, T.P., Somlor, S., Schmitz, A., Jamone, L., Huang, W., Kristanto, H., and Sugano, S. (2016). Design and characterization of a three-axis hall effect-based soft skin sensor. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16040491"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4226","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2015.2417759","article-title":"Highly sensitive soft tactile sensors for an anthropomorphic robotic hand","volume":"15","author":"Jamone","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2014.03.030","article-title":"An artificial skin based on optoelectronic technology","volume":"212","author":"Cirillo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cirillo, A., Cirillo, P., De Maria, G., Natale, C., and Pirozzi, S. (2017). A Distributed Tactile Sensor for Intuitive Human-Robot Interfacing. J. Sens., 2017.","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/1357061"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Back, J., Dasgupta, P., Seneviratne, L., Althoefer, K., and Liu, H. (October, January 28). Feasibility study-novel optical soft tactile array sensing for minimally invasive surgery. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), Hamburg, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2015.7353570"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2711","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2012.2200790","article-title":"Design and fabrication of soft artificial skin using embedded microchannels and liquid conductors","volume":"12","author":"Park","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kramer, R.K., Majidi, C., and Wood, R.J. (2011, January 9\u201313). Wearable tactile keypad with stretchable artificial skin. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2011.5980082"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pugach, G., Khomenko, V., Melnyk, A., Pitti, A., Henaff, P., and Gaussier, P. (2013, January 16\u201319). Electronic Hardware Design of a Low Cost Tactile Sensor Device for Physical Human-Robot Interactions. Proceedings of the IEEE International Scientific Conference Electronics and Nanotechnology, Kiev, Ukraine.","DOI":"10.1109\/ELNANO.2013.6552033"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39837","DOI":"10.1038\/srep39837","article-title":"Soft Nanocomposite Based Multi-point, Multi-directional Strain Mapping Sensor Using Anisotropic Electrical Impedance Tomography","volume":"7","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lacasse, M.A., Duchaine, V., and Gosselin, C. (2010, January 3\u20137). Characterization of the Electrical Resistance of Carbon-Black-Filled Silicone: Application to a Flexible and Stretchable Robot Skin. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Anchorage, AK, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.2010.5509283"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1038\/nnano.2011.184","article-title":"Skin-like pressure and strain sensors based on transparent elastic films of carbon nanotubes","volume":"6","author":"Lipomi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2017.06.059","article-title":"Towards wearable pressure sensors using multiwall carbon nanotube\/polydimethylsiloxane nanocomposite foams","volume":"132","author":"Zuruzi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dinh, T., Nguyen, T.K., Phan, H.P., Fastier-Wooller, J., Tran, C.D., Nguyen, N.T., and Dao, D.V. (2018). Electrical resistance of carbon nanotube yarns under compressive transverse pressure. IEEE Electron Device Lett.","DOI":"10.1109\/LED.2018.2806181"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5296","DOI":"10.3390\/s140305296","article-title":"Flexible tactile sensing based on piezoresistive composites: A review","volume":"14","author":"Stassi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4027116","article-title":"Medical Simulators for Developing Countries Via Low-Cost Two-Dimensional Position Tracking","volume":"8","author":"Walz","year":"2014","journal-title":"ASME J. Med. Devices"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"020927","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4030138","article-title":"Flexible, Stretchable Skin Sensors for Two-Dimensional Position Tracking in Medical Simulators","volume":"9","author":"Lu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Med. Devices"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Neill, J., Lu, J., Dockter, R., and Kowalewski, T. (2015, January 26\u201330). Practical, stretchable smart skin sensors for contact-aware robots in safe and collaborative interactions. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA), Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICRA.2015.7139244"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u0143eill, J.J., and Kowalewski, T.M. (2014). Online Free Anatomy Registration via Non-Contact Skeletal Tracking for Collaborative Human\/Robot Interaction in Surgical Robotics. ASME J. Med. Devices.","DOI":"10.1115\/1.4027119"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5117","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.201201886","article-title":"Highly conductive and stretchable silver nanowire conductors","volume":"24","author":"Xu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, J., Lee, M., Shim, H.J., Ghaffari, R., Cho, H.R., Son, D., Jung, Y.H., Soh, M., Choi, C., and Jung, S. (2014). Stretchable silicon nanoribbon electronics for skin prosthesis. Nat. Commun., 5.","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms6747"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/4\/953\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T14:58:14Z","timestamp":1760194694000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/4\/953"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,3,23]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s18040953"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18040953","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,3,23]]}}}