{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,7]],"date-time":"2025-11-07T19:13:47Z","timestamp":1762542827067,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,10]],"date-time":"2018-04-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1523318400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"the National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61671317"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61671317"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ultrasonic flowmeters with a small or medium diameter are widely used in process industries. The flow field disturbance on acoustic propagation caused by a vortex near the transducer inside the sensor as well as the mechanism and details of flow-acoustic interaction are needed to strengthen research. For that reason, a new hybrid scheme is proposed; the theories of computational fluid dynamics (CFD), wave acoustics, and ray acoustics are used comprehensively by a new step-by-step method. The flow field with a vortex near the transducer, and its influence on sound propagation, receiving, and flowmeter performance are analyzed in depth. It was found that, firstly, the velocity and vortex intensity distribution were asymmetric on the sensor cross-section and acoustic path. Secondly, when passing through the vortex zone, the central ray trajectory was deflected significantly. The sound pressure on the central line of the sound path also changed. Thirdly, the pressure deviation becomes larger with as the flow velocity increases. The deviation was up to 17% for different velocity profiles in a range of 0.6 m\/s to 53 m\/s. Lastly, in comparison to the theoretical value, the relative deviation of the instrument coefficient for the velocity profile with a vortex near the transducer reached up to \u221217%. In addition, the rationality of the simulation was proved by experiments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18041151","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,10]],"date-time":"2018-04-10T13:06:08Z","timestamp":1523365568000},"page":"1151","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["New Analysis Scheme of Flow-Acoustic Coupling for Gas Ultrasonic Flowmeter with Vortex near the Transducer"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5784-6283","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yanzhao","family":"Sun","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tao","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dandan","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1371","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultras.2006.05.046","article-title":"Ultrasonic flowmeters: Half-century progress report, 1955\u20132005","volume":"44","author":"Lynnworth","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ultrasonics"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rajita, G., and Mandal, N. (2016, January 28\u201330). Review on transit time ultrasonic flowmeter. Proceedings of the International Conference on Control, Instrumentation, Energy & Communication, Kolkata, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/CIEC.2016.7513740"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Lansing, J. (1998). Measurement of Gas by Multipath Ultrasonic Meters, AGA. Tech. Rep. 9."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Mandard, E., Kouame, D., Battault, R., Remenieras, J.P., and Patat, F. (2005, January 18\u201321). Transit time ultrasonic flowmeter: velocity profile estimation. Proceedings of the IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium, Rotterdam, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2866","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2012.2204738","article-title":"Data integration method for multipath ultrasonic flowmeter","volume":"12","author":"Peng","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.flowmeasinst.2016.03.004","article-title":"Approach for acoustic transit time flow measurement in sections of varying shape: Theoretical fundamentals and implementation in practice","volume":"49","author":"Marushchenko","year":"2016","journal-title":"Flow Meas. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1158","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2015.2501427","article-title":"Optimization of neural network by genetic algorithm for flowrate determination in multipath ultrasonic gas flowmeter","volume":"16","author":"Hu","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.flowmeasinst.2016.10.015","article-title":"Use of gas bubbles for ultrasound doppler flow velocity profile measurement","volume":"52","author":"Birkhofer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Flow Meas. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"ASME PTC18-2011 (2011). Hydraulic Turbines and Pump Turbines Performance Test Codes, American Society of Mechanical Engineers."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Voser, A. (1996, June 28). CFD-Calculations of Protrusion Effects and Impact on the Acoustic Discharge Measurement Accuracy. Available online: http:\/\/www.ighem.org\/Paper1996\/GHEM1996_35.pdf."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Lowell, F., Schafer, S., and Walsh, J. (1998, August 20). Acoustic Flowmeters in circular Pipes: Acoustic Transducer Conduit Protrusion Effects in Discharge Measurement. Available online: http:\/\/www.ighem.org\/Paper1998\/IQHEM1998_05.pdf."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.flowmeasinst.2005.11.004","article-title":"Investigation of the flow velocity profile in a metering section of an invasive ultrasonic flowmeter","volume":"17","year":"2006","journal-title":"Flow Meas. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.1016\/j.flowmeasinst.2011.08.003","article-title":"Study of acoustic transducer protrusion and recess effects on ultrasonic flowmeter measurement by numerical simulation","volume":"22","author":"Zheng","year":"2011","journal-title":"Flow Meas. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/528602","article-title":"The flow field analysis and flow calculation of ultrasonic flowmeter based on the fluent software","volume":"2014","author":"Guo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Abstr. Appl. Anal."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"39","article-title":"Numerical simulation of ultrasonic flowmeters","volume":"86","author":"Koechner","year":"2000","journal-title":"Acta Acust. United Acust."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"636","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2007.287","article-title":"A coupled finite-element, boundary-integral method for simulating ultrasonic flowmeters","volume":"54","author":"Bezdek","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferr."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1080\/18811248.2008.9711476","article-title":"Analysis of ultrasound propagation in high-temperature nuclear reactor feedwater to investigate a clamp-on ultrasonic pulse doppler flowmeter","volume":"45","author":"Tezuka","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.1016\/S0041-624X(02)00387-6","article-title":"Numerical simulation of transit-time ultrasonic flowmeters: Uncertainties due to flow profile and fluid turbulence","volume":"40","author":"Ioos","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ultrasonics"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Kupnik, M., O\u2019Leary, P., Schr\u00f6der, A., and Rungger, I. (2003, January 5\u20138). Numerical simulation of ultrasonic transit-time flowmeters performance in high temperature gas flows. Proceedings of the IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium, Honolulu, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1963","DOI":"10.12785\/amis\/070535","article-title":"Numerical simulating nonlinear effects of ultrasonic propagation on high-speed ultrasonic gas flow measurement","volume":"7","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Math. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-smt.2015.0310","article-title":"Improvement of gas ultrasonic flowmeter measurement non-linearity based on ray tracing method","volume":"10","author":"Zheng","year":"2016","journal-title":"IET Sci. Meas. Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eccardt, P.C., Landes, H., and Lerch, R. (1996, January 3\u20136). Finite element simulation of acoustic wave propagation within flowing media. Proceedings of the IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium, Sab Antonio, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-8772-3_13"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultras.2003.12.044","article-title":"Flow acoustics modelling and implications for ultrasonic flow measurement based on the transit-time method","volume":"41","author":"Willatzen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ultrasonics"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1016\/S0041-624X(02)00429-8","article-title":"Ultrasonic flowmeters: Temperature gradients and transducer geometry effects","volume":"41","author":"Willatzen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Ultrasonics"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/j.flowmeasinst.2007.09.004","article-title":"Nonlinearities in ultrasonic flow measurement","volume":"19","author":"Willatzen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Flow Meas. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ultras.2012.10.005","article-title":"Acoustic propagation in viscous fluid with uniform flow and a novel design methodology for ultrasonic flow meter","volume":"53","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ultrasonics"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luca, A., Fodil, K., and Zerarka, A. (2016, January 18\u201321). Full-wave numerical simulation of ultrasonic transit-time gas flowmeters. Proceedings of the IEEE Ultrasonics Symposium, Tours, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/ULTSYM.2016.7728757"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"886","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2016.2545714","article-title":"Numerical simulation of transit-time ultrasonic flowmeters by a direct approach","volume":"63","author":"Luca","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gu, Y., Wang, Y.F., Li, Q., and Liu, Z.W. (2016). A 3D CFD simulation and analysis of flow-induced forces on polymer piezoelectric sensors in a Chinese liquors identification e-nose. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16101738"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1121\/1.1477931","article-title":"Planar near-field acoustical holography in a moving medium","volume":"112","author":"Ruhala","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Acoust. Soc. Am."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Du, G.H., Zhu, Z.M., and Gong, X.F. (2012). Acoustics Foundation, Nanjing University Press. [3nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8253","DOI":"10.3390\/s150408253","article-title":"An ultrasound-based liquid pressure measurement method in small diameter pipelines considering the installation and temperature","volume":"15","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10705","DOI":"10.3390\/s150510705","article-title":"Development of an ultrasonic airflow measurement device for ducted air","volume":"15","author":"Raine","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tiwari, K.A., Raisutis, R., and Samaitis, V. (2017). Hybrid signal processing technique to improve the defect estimation in ultrasonic non-destructive testing of composite structures. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17122858"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/4\/1151\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:00:08Z","timestamp":1760194808000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/4\/1151"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,10]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s18041151"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18041151","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,10]]}}}