{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]],"date-time":"2026-03-07T14:01:21Z","timestamp":1772892081348,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,11]],"date-time":"2018-04-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1523404800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper examines methods to best exploit the High Dynamic Range (HDR) of the single photon avalanche diode (SPAD) in a high fill-factor HDR photon counting pixel that is scalable to megapixel arrays. The proposed method combines multi-exposure HDR with temporal oversampling in-pixel. We present a silicon demonstration IC with 96 \u00d7 40 array of 8.25 \u00b5m pitch 66% fill-factor SPAD-based pixels achieving &gt;100 dB dynamic range with 3 back-to-back exposures (short, mid, long). Each pixel sums 15 bit-planes or binary field images internally to constitute one frame providing 3.75\u00d7 data compression, hence the 1k frames per second (FPS) output off-chip represents 45,000 individual field images per second on chip. Two future projections of this work are described: scaling SPAD-based image sensors to HDR 1 MPixel formats and shrinking the pixel pitch to 1\u20133 \u00b5m.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18041166","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,11]],"date-time":"2018-04-11T12:16:50Z","timestamp":1523449010000},"page":"1166","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":46,"title":["High Dynamic Range Imaging at the Quantum Limit with Single Photon Avalanche Diode-Based Image Sensors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2094-9702","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Neale","family":"Dutton","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"STMicroelectronics Imaging Division, Tanfield, Edinburgh EH3 5DA, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5486-8791","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tarek","family":"Al Abbas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JL, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3931-7972","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Istvan","family":"Gyongy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JL, UK"}]},{"given":"Francescopaolo","family":"Mattioli Della Rocca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"STMicroelectronics Imaging Division, Tanfield, Edinburgh EH3 5DA, UK"},{"name":"School of Engineering, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JL, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0398-7520","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Robert","family":"Henderson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JL, UK"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Dutton, N.A.W., Al Abbas, T., Gyongy, I., and Henderson, R.K. 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