{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T03:58:03Z","timestamp":1760241483433,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":64,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,25]],"date-time":"2018-04-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1524614400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Smoking causes unalterable physiological abnormalities in the pulmonary system. This is emerging as a serious threat worldwide. Unlike spirometry, tidal breathing does not require subjects to undergo forceful breathing maneuvers and is progressing as a new direction towards pulmonary health assessment. The aim of the paper is to evaluate whether tidal breathing signatures can indicate deteriorating adult lung condition in an otherwise healthy person. If successful, such a system can be used as a pre-screening tool for all people before some of them need to undergo a thorough clinical checkup. This work presents a novel systematic approach to identify compromised pulmonary systems in smokers from acquired tidal breathing patterns. Tidal breathing patterns are acquired during restful breathing of adult participants. Thereafter, physiological attributes are extracted from the acquired tidal breathing signals. Finally, a unique classification approach of locally weighted learning with ridge regression (LWL-ridge) is implemented, which handles the subjective variations in tidal breathing data without performing feature normalization. The LWL-ridge classifier recognized compromised pulmonary systems in smokers with an average classification accuracy of 86.17% along with a sensitivity of 80% and a specificity of 92%. The implemented approach outperformed other variants of LWL as well as other standard classifiers and generated comparable results when applied on an external cohort. This end-to-end automated system is suitable for pre-screening people routinely for early detection of lung ailments as a preventive measure in an infrastructure-agnostic way.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18051322","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,25]],"date-time":"2018-04-25T03:22:45Z","timestamp":1524626565000},"page":"1322","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["A Novel Approach to the Identification of Compromised Pulmonary Systems in Smokers by Exploiting Tidal Breathing Patterns"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Raj","family":"Rakshit","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"TCS Research and Innovation, Kolkata-700156, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3274-7673","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anwesha","family":"Khasnobish","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TCS Research and Innovation, Kolkata-700156, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Arijit","family":"Chowdhury","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TCS Research and Innovation, Kolkata-700156, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Arijit","family":"Sinharay","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TCS Research and Innovation, Kolkata-700156, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Arpan","family":"Pal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TCS Research and Innovation, Kolkata-700156, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tapas","family":"Chakravarty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"TCS Research and Innovation, Kolkata-700156, India"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1S","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.117.2_suppl.1S","article-title":"The impact of COPD on lung health worldwide: Epidemiology and incidence","volume":"117","author":"Hurd","year":"2000","journal-title":"Chest J."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2017, August 19). Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD). Available online: http:\/\/www.who.int\/mediacentre\/factsheets\/fs315\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2017, August 19). Estimated Incidence, Mortality and Prevalence Worldwide in 2012. Available online: http:\/\/globocan.iarc.fr\/Pages\/fact sheets cancer.aspx."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.05.00034805","article-title":"Standardisation of spirometry","volume":"26","author":"Miller","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khasnobish, A., Rakshit, R., Sinharay, A., and Chakravarty, T. (2017, January 18\u201321). Phase-gain IC based novel design of tidal breathing pattern sensor for pulmonary disease diagnostics: Demo abstract. Proceedings of the 16th ACM\/IEEE International Conference on Information Processing in Sensor Networks, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3055031.3055041"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sinharay, A., Rakshit, R., Khasnobish, A., Ghosh, D., Pal, A., and Chakravrty, T. (2017). The Ultrasonic Directional Tidal Breathing Pattern Sensor: Equitable Design Realization Based on Phase Information. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17081853"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1136\/tobaccocontrol-2011-050338","article-title":"The history of the discovery of the cigarette-lung cancer link: Evidentiary traditions, corporate denial, global toll","volume":"21","author":"Proctor","year":"2012","journal-title":"Tob. Control"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1002\/1097-0142(1967)20:3<451::AID-CNCR2820200313>3.0.CO;2-H","article-title":"Fatal primary cancer of the lung in a teen-age smoker","volume":"20","author":"Sawyer","year":"1967","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1645","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.1.6077.1645","article-title":"The natural history of chronic airflow obstruction","volume":"1","author":"Fletcher","year":"1977","journal-title":"Br. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maury, B. (2013). The Respiratory System in Equations, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-88-470-5214-7"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.2147\/ciia.2006.1.3.253","article-title":"Effect of aging on respiratory system physiology and immunology","volume":"1","author":"Sharma","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Interventions Aging"},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"7","article-title":"Regional variations in vital capacity in adult males in India: Comparison of regression equations from four regions and impact on interpretation of spirometric data","volume":"51","author":"Chhabra","year":"2009","journal-title":"Indian J. Chest Dis. Allied Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"200","article-title":"Variation in lung volumes and capacities among young males in relation to height","volume":"26","author":"Bhatti","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Ayub Med. Coll. Abbottabad"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1953.5.12.779","article-title":"Physical properties of human lungs measured during spontaneous respiration","volume":"5","author":"Mead","year":"1953","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1007\/s10877-013-9497-7","article-title":"A pilot study quantifying the shape of tidal breathing waveforms using centroids in health and COPD","volume":"28","author":"Williams","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Monit. Comput."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2009.10.014","article-title":"Breath-by-breath quantification of progressive airflow limitation during exercise in COPD: A new method","volume":"104","author":"Ma","year":"2010","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.125.3.901","article-title":"Analysis of tidal breathing profiles in cystic fibrosis and COPD","volume":"125","author":"Colasanti","year":"2004","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1007\/s00540-012-1411-9","article-title":"Impact of changes of positive end-expiratory pressure on functional residual capacity at low tidal volume ventilation during general anesthesia","volume":"26","author":"Satoh","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Anesth."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrc.2008.03.036","article-title":"The oxygenation ratio during mechanical ventilation in children: The role of tidal volume and positive end-expiratory pressure","volume":"24","author":"Halbertsma","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1007\/s00540-004-0257-1","article-title":"Expiratory tidal volume displayed on bird 8400STi can exceed the preset tidal volume due to cardiogenic oscillation: A lung model study","volume":"18","author":"Imanaka","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Anesth."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1136\/thx.36.2.135","article-title":"Tidal expiratory flow patterns in airflow obstruction","volume":"36","author":"Morris","year":"1981","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1253","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.153.4.8616550","article-title":"Tidal breathing analysis as a measure of airway obstruction in children three years of age and older","volume":"153","author":"Brackel","year":"1996","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1180","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1399-3003.2000.16f26.x","article-title":"Tidal breath analysis for infant pulmonary function testing. ERS\/ATS task force on standards for infant respiratory function testing. European respiratory society\/american thoracic society","volume":"16","author":"Bates","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1399-3003.2000.16d28.x","article-title":"Specifications for equipment used for infant pulmonary function testing. ers\/ats task force on standards for infant respiratory function testing. European respiratory society\/american thoracic society","volume":"16","author":"Frey","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1016","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.00.16510160","article-title":"Specification for signal processing and data handling used for infant pulmonary function testing. ERS\/ATS task force on standards for infant respiratory function testing. European respiratory society\/american thoracic society","volume":"16","author":"Frey","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"40","article-title":"A proposed curvilinearity index for quantifying airflow obstruction","volume":"51","author":"Zheng","year":"2006","journal-title":"Respir. Care"},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"1744","article-title":"Correlation of spirometry and symptom scores in childhood asthma and the usefulness of curvature assessment in expiratory flow-volume curves","volume":"52","author":"Wildhaber","year":"2007","journal-title":"Respir. Care"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1016\/S0034-5687(01)00249-3","article-title":"The morphology of periodic breathing in infants and adults","volume":"127","author":"Weintraub","year":"2001","journal-title":"Respir. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1933","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00927.2002","article-title":"Spectral characteristics of airway opening and chest wall tidal flows in spontaneously breathing preterm infants","volume":"94","author":"Habib","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Leonhardt, S., and Kecman, V. (2007, January 7\u201311). Novel features for automated lung function diagnosis in spontaneously breathing infants. Proceedings of the Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Medicine in Europe, Amsterdam, The Netherlands."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1945","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2010.2046168","article-title":"Analysis of tidal breathing flow volume loops for automated lung-function diagnosis in infants","volume":"57","author":"Leonhardt","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1304","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200605-642ST","article-title":"An official american thoracic society\/european respiratory society statement: Pulmonary function testing in preschool children","volume":"175","author":"Beydon","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1081\/COPD-120028700","article-title":"Does mechanical injury of the peripheral airways play a role in the genesis of COPD in smokers?","volume":"1","year":"2004","journal-title":"COPD J. Chronic Obstr. Pulm. Dis."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1183\/09059180.00001911","article-title":"Physiological techniques for detecting expiratory flow limitation during tidal breathing","volume":"20","author":"Koulouris","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. Rev."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.3109\/15412555.2013.813929","article-title":"Tidal expiratory flow limitation at rest as a functional marker of pulmonary emphysema in moderate-to-severe COPD","volume":"11","author":"Chiari","year":"2014","journal-title":"COPD J. Chronic Obstr. Pulm. Dis."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"608","DOI":"10.1097\/01.PHM.0000133431.70907.A2","article-title":"Comparison of peak cough flows measured by pneumotachograph and a portable peak flow meter","volume":"83","author":"Sancho","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Phys. Med. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.1950160508","article-title":"The effect of instrumental dead space on measurement of breathing pattern and pulmonary mechanics in the newborn","volume":"16","author":"Marsh","year":"1993","journal-title":"Pediatric Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.01.17101080","article-title":"Effect of apparatus dead space on breathing parameters in newborns: Flow-through versus conventional techniques","volume":"17","author":"Schmalisch","year":"2001","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pearsall, M.F., and Feldman, J.M. (2014). When does apparatus dead space matter for the pediatric patient?. Anesth. Analg., Reprint.","DOI":"10.1213\/ANE.0000000000000148"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1203\/00006450-200104000-00022","article-title":"Measurement of functional residual capacity in rabbits and children using an ultrasonic flow meter","volume":"49","author":"Schibler","year":"2001","journal-title":"Pediatr. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1195","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1986.61.3.1195","article-title":"A pulsed diagonal-beam ultrasonic airflow meter","volume":"61","author":"Buess","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1152\/jappl.1967.22.3.407","article-title":"Measurement of the separate volume changes of rib cage and abdomen during breathing","volume":"22","author":"Konno","year":"1967","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01132363","article-title":"Presentation and evaluation of a new optical sensor for respiratory rate monitoring","volume":"11","author":"Vegfors","year":"1994","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Monit. Comput."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1290","DOI":"10.1007\/s00134-006-0253-z","article-title":"Electrical impedance tomography: Ready for prime time?","volume":"32","author":"Wolf","year":"2006","journal-title":"Intensive Care Med."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resp.2004.07.014","article-title":"Distribution of ventilation in young and elderly adults determined by electrical impedance tomography","volume":"143","author":"Frerichs","year":"2004","journal-title":"Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"A175","DOI":"10.1088\/0967-3334\/16\/3A\/017","article-title":"Multifrequency and parametric EIT images of neonatal lungs","volume":"16","author":"Hampshire","year":"1995","journal-title":"Physiol. Meas."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"(2018, March 29). WMA Declaration of Helsinki\u2014Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects. Available online: https:\/\/www.wma.net\/policies-post\/wma-declaration-of-helsinki-ethical-principles-for-medical-research-involving-human-subjects\/."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4869","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.22956","article-title":"Multivariate classification of smokers and nonsmokers using SVM-RFE on structural MRI images","volume":"36","author":"Ding","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hum. Brain Mapp."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1080\/01621459.1979.10481038","article-title":"Robust locally weighted regression and smoothing scatterplots","volume":"74","author":"Cleveland","year":"1979","journal-title":"J. Am. Stat. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.2307\/2347628","article-title":"Ridge estimators in logistic regression","volume":"41","year":"1992","journal-title":"Appl. Stat."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.1177\/002224377701400419","article-title":"Parameter estimation in marketing models in the presence of multicollinearity: An application of ridge regression","volume":"14","author":"Mahajan","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Mark. Res."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"Mika, S., Ratsch, G., Weston, J., Scholkopf, B., and Mullers, K. (1999, January 25). Fisher discriminant analysis with kernels. Proceedings of the 1999 IEEE Signal Processing Society Workshop Neural Networks for Signal Processing IX, Madison, WI, USA."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1145\/1656274.1656278","article-title":"The WEKA data mining software: An update","volume":"11","author":"Hall","year":"2009","journal-title":"ACM SIGKDD Explor. Newsl."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patrec.2005.10.010","article-title":"An introduction to ROC analysis","volume":"27","author":"Fawcett","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pattern Recogn. Lett."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Duda, R.O., Hart, P.E., and Stork, D.G. (2012). Pattern Classification, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1613\/jair.953","article-title":"SMOTE: Synthetic minority over-sampling technique","volume":"16","author":"Chawla","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Artif. Intell. Res."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Sch\u00f6lkopf, B., Burges, C.J.C., and Smola, A.J. (1999). Advances in Kernel Methods: Support Vector Learning, MIT Press."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1010933404324","article-title":"Random forests","volume":"45","author":"Breiman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Mach. Learn."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00153759","article-title":"Instance-based learning algorithms","volume":"6","author":"Aha","year":"1991","journal-title":"Mach. Learn."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"1","article-title":"Statistical comparisons of classifiers over multiple data sets","volume":"7","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Mach. Learn. Res."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forc.2017.02.008","article-title":"Analysis of exhaled breath from cigarette smokers using CMV-GC\/MS","volume":"4","author":"Hamblin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Forensic Chem."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Valencia, S., Smith, M.V., Atyabi, A., and Shic, F. (2016, January 20\u201322). Mobile ascertainment of smoking status through breath: A machine learning approach. Proceedings of the IEEE Annual Ubiquitous Computing, Electronics & Mobile Communication Conference (UEMCON), New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/UEMCON.2016.7777917"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Witt, K., Reulecke, S., and Voss, A. (September, January 30). Discrimination and characterization of breath from smokers and non-smokers via electronic nose and GC\/MS analysis. Proceedings of the 2011 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, EMBC, Boston, MA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMBS.2011.6090618"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.125.1.22","article-title":"Markers of inflammation in exhaled breath condensate of young healthy smokers","volume":"125","author":"Garey","year":"2004","journal-title":"Chest J."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/5\/1322\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:02:02Z","timestamp":1760194922000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/5\/1322"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,25]]},"references-count":64,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s18051322"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18051322","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,4,25]]}}}