{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T21:33:11Z","timestamp":1780522391641,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,8]],"date-time":"2018-06-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1528416000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["41474003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["41474003"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Interferograms with short wavelength (e.g., X-band) are usually prone to temporal decorrelation in permafrost regions, leading to the unavailability of sufficient high-coherence interferograms for performing conventional time series InSAR analysis. This paper proposes the utilization of temporary scatterers for the stacking InSAR method, thus enabling extraction of subsidence in a permafrost region with limited SAR images and limited high-coherence interferograms. Such method is termed as the temporary scatterers stacking InSAR (TSS-InSAR). Taking the Gonghe-Yushu highway (about 30 km), part of G214 National Highway in Qinghai province (in a permafrost region), as a case study, this TSS-InSAR approach was demonstrated in detail and implemented. With 10 TerraSAR-X images acquired during the period from May 2015 to August 2015, the subsidence along this highway was extracted. In this case the lack of a consistent number of SAR acquisitions limits the possibility to perform other conventional time series InSAR analysis. The results show that the middle part of this highway is in the thermokarst and seasonal frozen soil area, and its accumulated subsidence reach up to 10 cm in 110 days. The thawing phenomena is still the main reason for the instability of highway. The results demonstrate that the TSS-InSAR method can effectively extract the subsidence information in a challenging scenario with limited X-band SAR images and limited high-coherence interferograms, where other time series InSAR-based techniques cannot be applied in a simple way.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18061876","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,8]],"date-time":"2018-06-08T11:19:31Z","timestamp":1528456771000},"page":"1876","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":58,"title":["Monitoring Highway Stability in Permafrost Regions with X-band Temporary Scatterers Stacking InSAR"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8989-3113","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Keren","family":"Dai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Earth Sciences, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Geohazard Prevention and Geoenviroment Protection, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guoxiang","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surveying and Geo-Informatics, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8054-7449","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhenhong","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"COMET, School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Deying","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surveying and Geo-Informatics, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, China"},{"name":"School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Southwest Petroleum University, Chengdu 610500, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiaowen","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surveying and Geo-Informatics, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bo","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surveying and Geo-Informatics, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jia","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sichuan No. 1 Surveying and Mapping Engineering Institute, Chengdu 610100, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guangyu","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Surveying and Geo-Informatics, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Zhou, Y., Guo, D., and Qiu, G. (2000). Permafrost in China, Science Press."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"15","article-title":"Perception and Evaluation for Settlement Monitoring Method of Highspeed Railway Subgrade","volume":"6","author":"Zhao","year":"2001","journal-title":"Subgrade Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"130","article-title":"Review of Deformation Monitoring Research Status","volume":"31","author":"Wang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sci. Surv. Mapp."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1109\/36.898661","article-title":"Permanent scatterers in SAR interferometry","volume":"39","author":"Ferretti","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2375","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2002.803792","article-title":"A new algorithm for surface deformation monitoring based on small baseline differential SAR interferograms","volume":"40","author":"Berardino","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.10.020","article-title":"Mapping ground surface deformation using temporarily coherent point SAR interferometry: Application to Los Angeles Basin","volume":"117","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3460","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2011.2124465","article-title":"A new algorithm for processing interferometric data-stacks: SqueeSAR","volume":"49","author":"Ferretti","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3220","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2009.2019125","article-title":"Integration of InSAR time-series analysis and water-vapor correction for mapping postseismic motion after the 2003 Bam (Iran) earthquake","volume":"47","author":"Li","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1007\/s40534-013-0030-y","article-title":"Monitoring subsidence rates along road network by persistent scatterer SAR interferometry with high-resolution TerraSAR-X imagery","volume":"21","author":"Yu","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Mod. Transp."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Ge, D., Wang, Y., Zhang, L., Xia, Y., Wang, Y., and Guo, X. (2018, June 07). Using Permanent Scatterer InSAR to Monitor Land Subsidence Along High Speed Railway-the First Experiment in China. Available online: https:\/\/www.semanticscholar.org\/paper\/Using-Permanent-Scatterer-Insar-to-Monitor-Land-the-Ge-Wang\/10a42acd7c935ee9845b5437a3f4421565284ace?tab=citations."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9542","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70809542","article-title":"Extracting Vertical Displacement Rates in Shanghai (China) with Multi-Platform SAR Images","volume":"7","author":"Dai","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.3390\/rs70100211","article-title":"A Hierarchical Approach to Persistent Scatterer Network Construction and Deformation Time Series Estimation","volume":"7","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, M., Tom\u00e1s, R., Li, Z., Motagh, M., Li, T., Hu, L., Gong, H., Li, X., Yu, J., and Gong, X. (2016). Imaging Land Subsidence Induced by Groundwater Extraction in Beijing (China) Using Satellite Radar Interferometry. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8060468"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4725","DOI":"10.3390\/s8084725","article-title":"Detecting Land Subsidence in Shanghai by PS-Networking SAR Interferometry","volume":"8","author":"Liu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, J., Zhou, L., Yao, C., and Hu, J. (2016). Surface Subsidence Analysis by Multi-Temporal InSAR and GRACE: A Case Study in Beijing. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16091495"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.09.009","article-title":"Monitoring activity at the Daguangbao mega-landslide (China) using Sentinel-1 TOPS time series interferometry","volume":"186","author":"Dai","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1093\/gji\/ggu017","article-title":"Spatiotemporal characteristics of the Huangtupo landslide in the Three Gorges region (China) constrained by radar interferometry","volume":"197","author":"Tomas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geophys. J. Int."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qu, T., Lu, P., Liu, C., Wu, H., Shao, X., Wan, H., Li, N., and Li, R. (2016). Hybrid-SAR Technique: Joint Analysis Using Phase-Based and Amplitude-Based Methods for the Xishancun Giant Landslide Monitoring. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8100874"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, Q., Hu, J., Zhang, L., and Ding, X. (2016). Towards Slow-Moving Landslide Monitoring by Integrating Multi-Sensor InSAR Time Series Datasets: The Zhouqu Case Study, China. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8110908"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1007\/s10346-010-0239-3","article-title":"Analysis with C- and X-band satellite SAR data of the Portalet landslide area","volume":"8","author":"Herrera","year":"2010","journal-title":"Landslides"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1080\/19475705.2016.1189459","article-title":"Mapping landslide phenomena in landlocked developing countries by means of satellite remote sensing data: The case of Dilijan (Armenia) area","volume":"8","author":"Bianchini","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geomat. Nat. Hazards Risk"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2013.07.006","article-title":"Surface deformation detected by ALOS PALSAR small baseline SAR interferometry over permafrost environment of Beiluhe section, Tibet Plateau, China","volume":"138","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2012.04.020","article-title":"Interaction between permafrost and infrastructure along the Qinghai\u2013Tibet Railway detected via jointly analysis of C-and L-band small baseline SAR interferometry","volume":"123","author":"Chen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, Y., Kim, J.-W., Shum, C., Lu, Z., Ding, X., Zhang, L., Erkan, K., Kuo, C.-Y., Shang, K., and Tseng, K.-H. (2017). Characterization of Active Layer Thickening Rate over the Northern Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Permafrost Region Using ALOS Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar Data, 2007\u20132009. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9010084"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, L., Zhang, T., and Wahr, J. (2010). InSAR measurements of surface deformation over permafrost on the North Slope of Alaska. J. Geophys. Res. Earth Surf., 115.","DOI":"10.1029\/2009JF001547"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2014.999886","article-title":"Detection of permafrost sensitivity of the Qinghai\u2013Tibet railway using satellite radar interferometry","volume":"36","author":"Chang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2016.07.019","article-title":"Monitoring surface deformation over permafrost with an improved SBAS-InSAR algorithm: With emphasis on climatic factors modeling","volume":"184","author":"Zhao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1002\/2016GL070781","article-title":"Large-scale InSAR monitoring of permafrost freeze-thaw cycles on the Tibetan Plateau","volume":"44","author":"Daout","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/2150704X.2016.1225170","article-title":"Seasonal deformation features on Qinghai-Tibet railway observed using time-series InSAR technique with high-resolution TerraSAR-X images","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, C., Zhang, H., Zhang, B., Tang, Y., Zhang, Z., Liu, M., and Zhao, L. (2015, January 26\u201331). New mode TerraSAR-X interferometry for railway monitoring in the permafrost region of the Tibet Plateau. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Milan, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/IGARSS.2015.7326098"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3491","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rse.2011.08.012","article-title":"A comparison of TerraSAR-X, RADARSAT-2 and ALOS-PALSAR interferometry for monitoring permafrost environments, case study from Herschel Island, Canada","volume":"115","author":"Short","year":"2011","journal-title":"Remote Sens. Environ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2243","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2003.814657","article-title":"Linear and nonlinear terrain deformation maps from a reduced set of interferometric sar images","volume":"41","author":"Mora","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Strozzi, T., Wegmuller, U., Werner, C., and Wiesmann, A. (2000, January 24\u201328). Measurement of slow uniform surface displacement with mm\/year accuracy. Proceedings of the IEEE 2000 International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium (IGARSS), Honolulu, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"1461","article-title":"Ground Subsidence Detection of Yancheng City Using Time Series Interferograms Stacking","volume":"36","author":"He","year":"2011","journal-title":"Geomat. Inf. Sci. Wuhan Univ."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"111","article-title":"Monitoring subsidence in Tianjin area using interferogram stacking based on coherent targets","volume":"8","author":"Fan","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"844","article-title":"A New Approach of Weighted Stacking Based on Common Master Image and Its Application in Ground Subsidence Monitoring","volume":"41","author":"Long","year":"2012","journal-title":"Acta Geod. Cartogr. Sin."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, Q., Lin, H., and Jiang, L. (2008). Ground deformation monitoring in Pearl River Delta region with Stacking D-InSAR technique. SPIE Digit. Libr., 7145.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.813017"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2011.2160644","article-title":"Repeat-pass sar interferometry with partially coherent targets","volume":"50","author":"Perissin","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., Li, Z., and Mills, J. (2018). A new approach to selecting coherent pixels for ground-based SAR deformation monitoring. ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens., in press.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2018.08.008"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4035","DOI":"10.1029\/1998GL900033","article-title":"Radar interferogram filtering for geophysical applications","volume":"25","author":"Goldstein","year":"1998","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hanssen, R.F. (2000). Radar Interferometry. Data Interpretation and Error Analysis, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/0-306-47633-9"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1109\/5.838084","article-title":"Synthetic aperture radar interferometry","volume":"88","author":"Rosen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"146","article-title":"Ground settlement monitoring based on temporarily coherent points between two sar acquisitions","volume":"66","author":"Zhang","year":"2010","journal-title":"ISPRS"},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"9","article-title":"Accuracy Detection and Contrast Analysis between Reference 3D and ASTER DEM","volume":"31","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chin. Foreign Highway"},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"36","article-title":"The Application of Reference 3D and Google Earth Data in the Overseas Railway Projects","volume":"1","author":"Yang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Survey"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1911","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2013.2256428","article-title":"Detecting Subsidence in Coastal Areas by Ultrashort-Baseline TCPInSAR on the Time Series of High-Resolution TerraSAR-X Images","volume":"52","author":"Liu","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsarchives-XL-7-W2-61-2013","article-title":"Detecting Subsidence Along a High Speed Railway by Ultrashort Baseline TCP-InSAR with High Resolution Images","volume":"XL-7\/W2","author":"Dai","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Z., Muller, P., Cross, P., and Fielding, E. (2005). Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR) atmospheric correction: GPS, moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS), and InSAR integration. J. Geophys. Res., 110.","DOI":"10.1029\/2004JB003446"},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"(2018, February 01). Permafrost-Wikipedia. Available online: https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Permafrost."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"13","article-title":"Influence of Permafrost on Foundation in Qinghai Area","volume":"21","author":"Sun","year":"2013","journal-title":"Urban Constr. Theory Res."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1007\/s11434-015-0730-2","article-title":"Thermokarst lake changes between 1969 and 2010 in the beilu river basin, qinghai\u2013tibet plateau, China","volume":"60","author":"Luo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"950","DOI":"10.1109\/36.175330","article-title":"Decorrelation in interferometric radar echoes","volume":"30","author":"Zebker","year":"1992","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/6\/1876\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:07:50Z","timestamp":1760195270000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/6\/1876"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,8]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s18061876"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18061876","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,8]]}}}