{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T03:50:41Z","timestamp":1777521041360,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,16]],"date-time":"2018-06-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1529107200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Fiber Bragg grating (FBG) is considered a good candidate for acoustic emission (AE) measurement. The sensing and measurement in traditional FBG-based AE systems are based on the variation in laser intensity induced by the Bragg wavelength shift. This paper presents a sensing system by combining self-mixing interference (SMI) in a laser diode and FBG for AE measurement, aiming to form a new compact and cost-effective sensing system. The measurement model of the overall system was derived. The performance of the presented system was investigated from both aspects of theory and experiment. The results show that the proposed system is able to measure AE events with high resolution and over a wide dynamic frequency range.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18061956","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,18]],"date-time":"2018-06-18T10:57:11Z","timestamp":1529319431000},"page":"1956","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Laser Self-Mixing Fiber Bragg Grating Sensor for Acoustic Emission Measurement"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4720-4126","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bin","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical, Computer and Telecommunications Engineering, University of Wollongong, Northfields Avenue, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3905-7162","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuxi","family":"Ruan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical, Computer and Telecommunications Engineering, University of Wollongong, Northfields Avenue, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia"}]},{"given":"Yanguang","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical, Computer and Telecommunications Engineering, University of Wollongong, Northfields Avenue, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia"}]},{"given":"Jiangtao","family":"Xi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical, Computer and Telecommunications Engineering, University of Wollongong, Northfields Avenue, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia"}]},{"given":"Qinghua","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical, Computer and Telecommunications Engineering, University of Wollongong, Northfields Avenue, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia"}]},{"given":"Jun","family":"Tong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical, Computer and Telecommunications Engineering, University of Wollongong, Northfields Avenue, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia"}]},{"given":"Ginu","family":"Rajan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical, Computer and Telecommunications Engineering, University of Wollongong, Northfields Avenue, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1255","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.15.001255","article-title":"Fiber-optic interferometric sensor for the detection of acoustic emission within composite materials","volume":"15","author":"Liu","year":"1990","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Wild, G., and Hinckley, S. (2010, January 23\u201327). Optical fibre Bragg gratings for acoustic sensors. Proceedings of the 20th International Congress on Acoustics, Sydney, Australia."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Rajan, G. (2015). Optical Fiber Sensors: Advanced Techniques and Applications, CRC Press. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/12\/1\/314","article-title":"Acousto-ultrasonic sensing using fiber Bragg gratings","volume":"12","author":"Betz","year":"2003","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"956","DOI":"10.1117\/1.1556372","article-title":"Response of a fiber Bragg grating ultrasonic sensor","volume":"42","author":"Fomitchov","year":"2003","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.1007\/s10706-017-0165-4","article-title":"Ballast Breakage Analysis Using FBG Acoustic Emission Measurement System","volume":"3","author":"Rajan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Geotech. Geol. Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.3390\/s18010215","article-title":"Novel Fiber-Optic Ring Acoustic Emission Sensor","volume":"18","author":"Wei","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baldwin, C.S., and Vizzini, A.J. (2003). Accoustic emission crack detection with FBG. Smart Structures and Materials 2003: Smart Sensor Technology and Measurement Systems, International Society for Optics and Photonics.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.484254"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scriptamat.2005.07.018","article-title":"A novel fiber Bragg grating acoustic emission sensor head for mechanical tests","volume":"53","author":"Lee","year":"2005","journal-title":"Scr. Mater."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2942","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.34.002942","article-title":"Acoustic emission measurement using a strain-insensitive fiber Bragg grating sensor under varying load conditions","volume":"34","author":"Tsuda","year":"2009","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mabry, N., Banks, C., Toutanji, H., and Seif, M. (2011). Acoustic emission felicity ratio measurements in carbon composites laminates using fiber Bragg grating sensors. Smart Sensor Phenomena, Technology, Networks, and Systems 2011, International Society for Optics and Photonics.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.885865"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1177\/0731684412437986","article-title":"Acoustic emission techniques for failure characterisation in composite top-hat stiffeners","volume":"31","author":"Raju","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Reinf. Plast. Compos."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28353","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.20.028353","article-title":"High-sensitivity ultrasonic phase-shifted fiber Bragg grating balanced sensing system","volume":"20","author":"Wu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"015011","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/24\/1\/015011","article-title":"Application of a novel optical fiber sensor to detection of acoustic emissions by various damages in CFRP laminates","volume":"24","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1177\/1475921714560074","article-title":"Acoustic emission detection and position identification of transverse cracks in carbon fiber\u2013reinforced plastic laminates by using a novel optical fiber ultrasonic sensing system","volume":"14","author":"Wu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"570","DOI":"10.1364\/AOP.7.000570","article-title":"Laser feedback interferometry: A tutorial on the self-mixing effect for coherent sensing","volume":"7","author":"Taimre","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Opt. Photonics"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1703","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2008.925726","article-title":"Novel measurement method for signal recovery in optical vibrometer","volume":"57","author":"Norgia","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26558","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.24.026558","article-title":"Fiber self-mixing interferometer with orthogonally polarized light compensation","volume":"24","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, B., Yu, Y., Xi, J., Fan, Y., Guo, Q., Tong, J., and Lewis, R.A. (2016). Features of a self-mixing laser diode operating near relaxation oscillation. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16091546"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lin, K., Yu, Y., Xi, J., Li, H., Guo, Q., Tong, J., and Su, L. (2016). A Fiber-Coupled Self-Mixing Laser Diode for the Measurement of Young\u2019s Modulus. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16060928"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6962","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.56.006962","article-title":"Displacement sensing using the relaxation oscillation frequency of a laser diode with optical feedback","volume":"56","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9582","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.19.009582","article-title":"Measuring the feedback parameter of a semiconductor laser with external optical feedback","volume":"19","author":"Yu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1537","DOI":"10.1364\/OPEX.13.001537","article-title":"Self-mixing interferometer based on sinusoidal phase modulating technique","volume":"13","author":"Guo","year":"2005","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31394","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.25.031394","article-title":"Micro-displacement reconstruction using a laser self-mixing grating interferometer with multiple-diffraction","volume":"25","author":"Guo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1049\/el:20080187","article-title":"Self-mixing based interrogation techniques for high-reflectivity fibre Bragg grating sensors","volume":"44","author":"Tosi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Electron. Lett."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlastec.2013.02.020","article-title":"FBG\/DFB-induced chaotic self-mixing analysis and sensing applications","volume":"50","author":"Tosi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Opt. Laser Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1317","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2008.926961","article-title":"Interrogation of fiber Bragg grating dynamic strain sensors by self-mixing interferometry","volume":"8","author":"Suleiman","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suleiman, M., Seat, H.C., and Bosch, T. (2009, January 5\u20137). FBG-based dynamic strain sensors demodulated by self-mixing interferometry: Improving strain measurement resolution. Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference, Singapore.","DOI":"10.1109\/IMTC.2009.5168470"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.1109\/50.618320","article-title":"Fiber Bragg grating technology fundamentals and overview","volume":"15","author":"Hill","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1109\/JQE.1980.1070479","article-title":"External optical feedback effects on semiconductor injection laser properties","volume":"16","author":"Lang","year":"1980","journal-title":"IEEE J. Quantum Electron."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5064","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.50.005064","article-title":"Improving the measurement performance for a self-mixing interferometry-based displacement sensing system","volume":"50","author":"Fan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1101","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2006.876544","article-title":"Displacement measurements using a self-mixing laser diode under moderate feedback","volume":"55","author":"Bes","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"840","DOI":"10.1109\/JQE.2009.2013153","article-title":"Optical feedback self-mixing interferometry with a large feedback factor: Behavior studies","volume":"45","author":"Yu","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE J. Quantum Electron."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"824","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2012.2227718","article-title":"Self-mixing laser sensor for large displacements: Signal recovery in the presence of speckle","volume":"13","author":"Zabit","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/6\/1956\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:09:02Z","timestamp":1760195342000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/6\/1956"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,16]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s18061956"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18061956","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,16]]}}}