{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,8]],"date-time":"2026-02-08T04:13:41Z","timestamp":1770524021726,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,28]],"date-time":"2018-06-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1530144000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China;National Natural Science Foundation of China;National Social Science Foundation of China","award":["2016YFC1401605, 2017YFA0604901 and 2016YFC1401905;41776183;15ZDB170"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2016YFC1401605, 2017YFA0604901 and 2016YFC1401905;41776183;15ZDB170"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The motivation of this work is to explore the possibility of typhoon wave retrieval (the main parameter is significant wave height (SWH)) for C-band Gaofen (GF-3) synthetic aperture radar (SAR) with a wide swath coverage (&gt;400 km). We aim to establish an analysis of a typhoon wave in the subresolution-scale (approximately 20 \u00d7 20 km2) on GF-3 SAR through SAR-measured parameters, including a normalized radar cross section (NRCS) and variance of the normalized SAR image (herein called cvar), which are the basic variables in an empirical wave retrieval algorithm and are independent of visible wave streaks. Several typhoons around the China Seas were captured by Chinese GF-3 SAR in 2017; e.g., Noru, Doksuri, Talim and Hato. The wave fields simulated from the third-generation numerical wave model WAVEWATCH-III (WW3) are collocated with these images. In general, the distribution patterns of the typhoon waves from the WW3 model are consistent with wave fields from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) at 0.125\u00b0 grids, indicating that the simulation results from the WW3 model are suitable for our study. In addition to winds retrieved from GF-3 SAR images in vertical-horizontal (VH) polarization, the characteristics of the typhoon wave on vertical-vertical (VV) polarization GF-3 SAR images are studied. It is found that SWH has a linear relationship with NRCS and cvar, however, SWH fluctuates with wind speed at all incidence angles. Based on the analyzed results, we simply tune two empirical wave retrieval algorithms for GF-3 SAR in typhoons. Although the correlation (COR) reaches 0.5 taking account into the NRCS term, a more accurate retrieval algorithm, including more related terms, is anticipated for further development for GF-3 SAR and validated through more typhoon images.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18072064","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,28]],"date-time":"2018-06-28T10:53:33Z","timestamp":1530183213000},"page":"2064","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["A Promising Method of Typhoon Wave Retrieval from Gaofen-3 Synthetic Aperture Radar Image in VV-Polarization"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Qiyan","family":"Ji","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Marine Science and Technology College, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan 316022, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3693-6217","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Weizeng","family":"Shao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Marine Science and Technology College, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan 316022, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1730-6332","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yexin","family":"Sheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Marine Science and Technology College, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan 316022, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xinzhe","family":"Yuan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Satellite Ocean Application Service, State Oceanic Administration, Beijing 100081, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5692-2547","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jian","family":"Sun","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physical Oceanography Laboratory\/CIMST, Ocean University of China and Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266100, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wei","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Juncheng","family":"Zuo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Marine Science and Technology College, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan 316022, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02995562","article-title":"Wave and wind retrieval from SAR images of the ocean","volume":"56","author":"Chapron","year":"2001","journal-title":"Ann. Telecommun."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-11-00211.1","article-title":"Tropical cyclone morphology from spaceborne synthetic aperture radar","volume":"94","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"1","article-title":"The first Sentinel-1 SAR image of a typhoons","volume":"34","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Oceanol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1320","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2014.2337663","article-title":"A new approach to ocean wave parameter estimates from C-band ScanSAR images","volume":"53","author":"Romeiser","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10713","DOI":"10.1029\/91JC00302","article-title":"On the nonlinear mapping of an ocean wave spectrum into a synthetic aperture radar image spectrum","volume":"96","author":"Hasselmann","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"6615","article-title":"An improved algorithm for the retrieval of ocean wave spectra from synthetic aperture radar image spectra","volume":"101","author":"Hasselmann","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2005.857503","article-title":"Extraction of coastal ocean wave fields from SAR images","volume":"30","author":"Collard","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3497","DOI":"10.1029\/1999JC900282","article-title":"A semi-parametric algorithm to retrieve ocean wave spectra from synthetic aperture radar","volume":"105","author":"Mastenbroek","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"297","article-title":"A parametric scheme for the retrieval of two-dimensional ocean wave spectra from synthetic aperture radar look cross spectra","volume":"110","author":"Lehner","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02842769","article-title":"Parameterized first-guess spectrum method for retrieving directional spectrum of swell-dominated waves and huge waves from SAR images","volume":"24","author":"Sun","year":"2006","journal-title":"Chin. J. Oceanol. Limnol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12815","DOI":"10.3390\/rs71012815","article-title":"Ocean wave parameters retrieval from TerraSAR-X images validated against buoy measurements and model results","volume":"7","author":"Shao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1007\/s13131-017-1089-9","article-title":"Development and validation of an ocean wave retrieval algorithm for VV-polarization Sentinel-1 SAR data","volume":"36","author":"Lin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Oceanol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"873","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.1986.289702","article-title":"On the relative importance of motion-related contributions to SAR imaging mechanism of ocean surface waves","volume":"24","author":"Alpers","year":"1986","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"8","article-title":"Measurements of wind-wave growth and swell decay during the Joint North Sea Wave Project (JONSWAP)","volume":"12","author":"Hasselmann","year":"1973","journal-title":"Erg\u00e4nzungsheft"},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"1","article-title":"An empirical approach for the retrieval of integral ocean wave parameters from synthetic aperture radar data","volume":"112","author":"Konig","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2010.2052364","article-title":"Ocean wave integral parameter measurements using Envisat ASAR wave mode data","volume":"49","author":"Li","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shao, W.Z., Zhang, Z., Li, X.F., and Li, H. (2016). Ocean wave parameters retrieval from Sentinel-1 SAR imagery. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8090707"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, H., Wang, J., Yang, J.S., Ren, L., Zhu, J.H., Yuan, X.Z., and Xie, C.H. (2018). Empirical algorithm for significant wave height retrieval from wave mode data provided by the Chinese satellite Gaofen-3. Remote Sens., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs10030363"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Pugliese, E., Dentale, F., and Reale, F. (2007, January 23\u201327). Reconstruction of SAR wave image effects through pseudo random simulation. Proceedings of the Envisat Symposium 2007, Montreux, Switzerland."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5767","DOI":"10.1029\/96JC02860","article-title":"Scatterometer data interpretation estimation and validation of the CMOD4","volume":"102","author":"Stoffelen","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7767","DOI":"10.1029\/97JC01911","article-title":"Observation of tropical cyclones by high-resolution scatterometry","volume":"103","author":"Quilfen","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"225","article-title":"An improved C-band scatterometer ocean geophysical model function: CMOD5","volume":"112","author":"Hersbach","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1175\/2009JTECHO698.1","article-title":"Comparison of C-Band scatterometer CMOD5.N equivalent neutral winds with ECMWF","volume":"27","author":"Hersbach","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7195","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JC011149","article-title":"Global C-Band Envisat, RADARSAT-2 and Sentinel-1 SAR measurements in co-polarization and cross-polarization","volume":"120","author":"Mouche","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7847","DOI":"10.1029\/97JC02726","article-title":"Mesoscale wind measurements using recalibrated ERS SAR images","volume":"103","author":"Lehner","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2587","DOI":"10.1109\/36.974994","article-title":"Comparison of SAR-derived wind speed with model predictions and ocean buoy measurements","volume":"39","author":"Monaldo","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2010.2053345","article-title":"Comparison of ocean-surface winds retrieved from QuikSCAT scatterometer and Radarsat-1 SAR in offshore waters of the U.S. west coast","volume":"8","author":"Yang","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4743","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2011.2159802","article-title":"Comparison of ocean surface winds from ENVISAT ASAR, Metop ASCAT scatterometer, buoy Measurements, and NOGAPS model","volume":"49","author":"Yang","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2638","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTARS.2015.2504324","article-title":"Preliminary evaluation of Sentinel-1A wind speed retrievals","volume":"9","author":"Monaldo","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Observ. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shao, W.Z., Shen, Y.X., and Sun, J. (2017). Preliminary assessment of wind and wave retrieval from Chinese Gaofen-3 SAR imagery. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17081705"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5009","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2015.2416203","article-title":"Future ocean scatterometry: On the use of cross-polar scattering to observe very high winds","volume":"53","author":"Fois","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3640","DOI":"10.1002\/2015JC010782","article-title":"Surface roughness and breaking wave properties retrieved from polarimetric microwave radar backscattering","volume":"120","author":"Hwang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1175\/BAMS-D-11-00001.1","article-title":"Cross-polarized synthetic aperture radar: A new potential technique for hurricanes","volume":"93","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-13-00006.1","article-title":"High-resolution hurricane vector winds from C-band dual-polarization SAR observations","volume":"31","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1109\/LGRS.2010.2085417","article-title":"C-band cross-polarization wind speed retrieval","volume":"3","author":"Vachon","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4252","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2012.2194157","article-title":"Ocean vector winds retrieval from C-band fully polarimetric SAR measurements","volume":"50","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.5194\/amt-7-437-2014","article-title":"Retrieving hurricane wind speeds using cross polarization C-band measurements","volume":"7","author":"Zadelhoff","year":"2014","journal-title":"Atmos. Meas. Tech."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5820","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2013.2293143","article-title":"Wind speed retrieval from VH dual-polarization RADARSAT-2 SAR images","volume":"52","author":"Shen","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"893","DOI":"10.1002\/2014JC010439","article-title":"Cross polarization geophysical model function for C-band radar backscattering from the ocean surface and wind speed retrieval","volume":"120","author":"Hwang","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4766","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2017.2699622","article-title":"A hurricane wind speed retrieval model for C-band RADARSAT-2 cross-polarization ScanSAR images","volume":"55","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, L.Q., Liu, B., Li, X.F., Zhang, Z., and Yu, W. (2017). Technical evaluation of Sentinel-1 IW mode cross-pol radar backscattering from the ocean surface in moderate wind condition. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9080854"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shao, W.Z., Yuan, X.Z., Sheng, Y.X., Sun, J., Zhou, W., and Zhang, Q.J. (2018). Development of wind speed retrieval from cross-polarization Chinese Gaofen-3 synthetic aperture radar in typhoons. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18020412"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocemod.2015.07.014","article-title":"Observation-based source terms in the third-generation wave model WAVEWATCH","volume":"96","author":"Zieger","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ocean Model."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ocemod.2017.08.005","article-title":"Numerical simulations of ocean surface waves under hurricane conditions: Assessment of existing model performance","volume":"118","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ocean Model."},{"key":"ref_45","first-page":"64","article-title":"The improvements of GRAPES_TYM and its performance in northwest Pacific Ocean and South China Sea in 2013","volume":"33","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Trop. Meteorol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6714","DOI":"10.1002\/2017JC012908","article-title":"Bridging the gap between cyclone wind and wave by C-band SAR measurements","volume":"122","author":"Shao","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15781","DOI":"10.1029\/97JC00467","article-title":"A unified directional spectrum for long and short wind-driven waves","volume":"102","author":"Elfouhaily","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Geophys. Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shao, W.Z., Wang, J., Li, X.F., and Sun, J. (2017). An empirical algorithm for wave retrieval from co-polarization X-Band SAR imagery. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9070711"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3890","DOI":"10.1080\/01431161.2015.1051630","article-title":"Sea state measurements using the XWAVE algorithm","volume":"36","author":"Bruck","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Remote Sens."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/7\/2064\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:10:32Z","timestamp":1760195432000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/7\/2064"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,28]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s18072064"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18072064","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,28]]}}}