{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T15:31:14Z","timestamp":1760369474007,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,12]],"date-time":"2018-07-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1531353600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Kinematic laser scanning with moving platforms has been used for the acquisition of 3D point clouds of our environment for many years. A main application of these mobile systems is the acquisition of the infrastructure, e.g., the road surface and buildings. Regarding this, the distance between laser scanner and object is often notably shorter than 20 m. In the close range, however, divergent incident laser light can lead to a deterioration of the precision of laser scanner distance measurements. In the light of this, we analyze the distance precision of the 2D laser scanner Z + F Profiler 9012A, purpose-built for kinematic applications, in the range of up to 20 m. In accordance with previous studies, a clear dependency between scan rate, intensity of the backscattered laser light and distance precision is evident, which is used to derive intensity-based stochastic models for the sensor. For this purpose, a new approach for 2D laser scanners is proposed that is based on the static scanning of surfaces with different backscatter. The approach is beneficial because the 2D laser scanner is operated in its normal measurement mode, no sophisticated equipment is required and no model assumptions for the scanned surface are made. The analysis reveals a lower precision in the range below 5 m caused by a decreased intensity. However, the Z + F Profiler 9012A is equipped with a special hardware-based close range optimization partially compensating for this. Our investigations show that this optimization works best at a distance of about 2 m. Although increased noise remains a critical factor in the close range, the derived stochastic models are also valid below 5 m.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18072253","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,12]],"date-time":"2018-07-12T11:19:24Z","timestamp":1531394364000},"page":"2253","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Strategy for Determining the Stochastic Distance Characteristics of the 2D Laser Scanner Z + F Profiler 9012A with Special Focus on the Close Range"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Erik","family":"Heinz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geodesy and Geoinformation, University of Bonn, Nussallee 17, 53115 Bonn, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Markus","family":"Mettenleiter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zoller &amp; Fr\u00f6hlich GmbH, Simoniusstra\u00dfe 22, 88239 Wangen im Allg\u00e4u, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Heiner","family":"Kuhlmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geodesy and Geoinformation, University of Bonn, Nussallee 17, 53115 Bonn, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7966-4322","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christoph","family":"Holst","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geodesy and Geoinformation, University of Bonn, Nussallee 17, 53115 Bonn, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Vosselman, G., and Maas, H.-G. (2010). Airborne and Terrestrial Laser Scanning, Whittles Publishing."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Mettenleiter, M., H\u00e4rtl, F., Kresser, S., and Fr\u00f6hlich, C. (2015). Laserscanning\u2014Phasenbasierte Lasermesstechnik f\u00fcr die hochpr\u00e4zise und schnelle dreidimensionale Umgebungserfassung, S\u00fcddeutscher Verlag onpact GmbH. Die Bibliothek der Technik, Band 371."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Freeden, W., and Rummel, R. (2016). Fl\u00e4chenhafte Abtastung mit Laserscanning: Messtechnik, fl\u00e4chenhafte Modellierungen und aktuelle Entwicklungen im Bereich des terrestrischen Laserscannings. Handbuch der Geod\u00e4sie, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-46900-2"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riveiro, B., and Solla, M. (2016). Laser Scanning Technology: Fundamentals, Principles and Applications in Infrastructure. Non-Destructive Techniques for the Evaluation of Structures and Infrastructure, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/b19024"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2013.03.006","article-title":"Review of mobile mapping and surveying technologies","volume":"46","author":"Puente","year":"2013","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Olsen, M.J., Roe, G.V., Glennie, C., Persi, F., Reedy, M., Hurwitz, D., Williams, K., Tuss, H., Squellati, A., and Knodler, M. (2013). Guidelines for the Use of Mobile LIDAR in Transportation Applications, National Academy of Sciences. Technical Report, National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Report 748."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Freeden, W., and Rummel, R. (2016). Mobile Multisensorsysteme. Handbuch der Geod\u00e4sie, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-46900-2"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4652","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5094652","article-title":"Synthesis of Transportation Applications of Mobile LIDAR","volume":"5","author":"Williams","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1080\/19479832.2016.1188860","article-title":"Use of mobile LiDAR in road information inventory","volume":"7","author":"Guan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Image Data Fusion"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sairam, N., Nagarajan, S., and Ornitz, S. (2016). Development of Mobile Mapping System for 3D Road Asset Inventory. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16030367"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"1119","article-title":"Mobile LIDAR mapping for 3D point cloud collection in urban areas\u2014A performance test","volume":"37","author":"Haala","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Luhmann, T., and M\u00fcller, C. (2013). Stra\u00dfentzustands\u00fcberwachung in Submillimeter. Photogrammetrie Laserscanning Optische 3D-Messtechnik, Beitr\u00e4ge der Oldenburger 3D-Tage, Wichmann Verlag."},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"185","article-title":"High precision kinematic surveying with laser scanners","volume":"1","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geod."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Hesse, C., Weltzien, K., and Stromhardt, A. (2016). Hochpr\u00e4zises Mobile Mapping im Ingenieur- und Verkehrswegebau. Schriftenreihe des DVW e.V., Band 85, Terrestrisches Laserscanning 2016 (TLS 2016), Wi\u00dfner Verlag."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Kremer, J., and Grimm, A. (September, January 25). A Dedicated Mobile LIDAR Mapping System For Railway Networks. Proceedings of the International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, XXII ISPRS Congress, Melbourne, Australia."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mikrut, S., Kohut, P., Pyka, K., Tokarczyk, R., Barszcz, T., and Uhl, T. (2016). Mobile Laser Scanning Systems for Measuring the Clearance Gauge of Railways: State of Play, Testing and Outlook. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16050683"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schauer, J., and N\u00fcchter, A. (2014, January 5\u20137). Efficient Point Cloud Collision Detection and Analysis in a Tunnel Environment Using Kinematic Laser Scanning and k-D Tree Search. Proceedings of the International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, ISPRS Technical Commission III Symposium, Zurich, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsarchives-XL-3-289-2014"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5805","DOI":"10.3390\/rs5115805","article-title":"Multi-Sensor Platform for Indoor Mobile Mapping: System Calibration and Using a Total Station for Indoor Applications","volume":"5","author":"Keller","year":"2013","journal-title":"Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04017012","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)SU.1943-5428.0000226","article-title":"Determination of Position and Orientation of LiDAR Sensors on Multisensor Platforms","volume":"143","author":"Hartmann","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Surv. Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"301","article-title":"A Backpack-mounted 3D Mobile Scanning System","volume":"122","author":"Borrmann","year":"2015","journal-title":"Allg. Vermess.-Nachr. (AVN)"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lehtola, V.V., Kaartinen, H., N\u00fcchter, A., Kaijaluoto, R., Kukko, A., Litkey, P., Honkavaara, E., Rosnell, T., Vaaja, M.T., and Virtanen, J.-P. (2017). Comparison of the Selected State-Of-The-Art 3D Indoor Scanning and Point Cloud Generation Methods. Remote Sens., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs9080796"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Klingbeil, L., Lottes, P., and Kuhlmann, H. (2014). Laserscanning-Technologie auf sich bewegenden Plattformen. Schriftenreihe des DVW e.V., Band 78, Terrestrisches Laserscanning 2014 (TLS 2014), Wi\u00dfner Verlag."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Pfeifer, N., H\u00f6fle, B., Briese, C., Rutzinger, M., and Haring, A. (2008, January 3\u201311). Analysis of the Backscattered Energy in Terrestrial Laser Scanning Data. Proceedings of the International Archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences (Part B5), Beijing, China."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2016.12.006","article-title":"An intensity-based stochastic model for terrestrial laser scanners","volume":"125","author":"Wujanz","year":"2017","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Luhmann, T., and Schumacher, C. (2018). Bestimmung von intensit\u00e4tsbasierten stochastischen Modellen f\u00fcr terrestrische Laserscanner basierend auf 3D-Punktwolken. Photogrammetrie Laserscanning Optische 3D-Messtechnik\u2014Beitr\u00e4ge der Oldenburger 3D-Tage, Wichmann Verlag."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"43","article-title":"Empirical Investigation of a Stochastic Model Based on Intensity Values for Terrestrial Laser Scanning","volume":"125","author":"Lambertus","year":"2018","journal-title":"Allg. Vermess.-Nachr. (AVN)"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Zoller & Fr\u00f6hlich GmbH (2018, February 26). Z + F Profiler 9012A, 2D Laser Scanner. Available online: http:\/\/www.zf-laser.com."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isprsjprs.2011.01.005","article-title":"Scanning geometry: Influencing factor on the quality of terrestrial laser scanning points","volume":"66","author":"Soudarissanane","year":"2011","journal-title":"ISPRS J. Photogramm. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Soudarissanane, S. (2016). The Geometry of Terrestrial Laser Scanning\u2014Identification of Errors, Modeling and Mitigation of Scanning Geometry. [Ph.D. Thesis, Delft University of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"147","article-title":"Calibration of Terrestrial Laser Scanners","volume":"123","author":"Holst","year":"2016","journal-title":"Allg. Vermess.-Nachr. (AVN)"},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"B\u00f6hler, W., Bordas, M., and Marbs, A. (October, January 30). Investigating Laser Scanner Accuracy. Proceedings of the XIXth CIPA Symposium, Antalya, Turkey."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"311","article-title":"Influence of surface reflectivity on reflectorless electronic distance measurements and terrestrial laser scanning","volume":"8","author":"Wieser","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geod."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Luhmann, T., and M\u00fcller, C. (2012). Pr\u00fcfverfahren f\u00fcr terrestrische Laserscanner\u2014Gemeinsame geometrische Genauigkeitsuntersuchungen verschiedener Laserscanner an der HCU Hamburg. Photogrammetrie Laserscanning Optische 3D-Messtechnik\u2014Beitr\u00e4ge der Oldenburger 3D-Tage, Wichmann Verlag."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"208","article-title":"Investigation on the influence of the incidence angle on the reflectorless distance measurement of a terrestrial laser scanner","volume":"103","author":"Neuner","year":"2015","journal-title":"\u00d6sterr. Z. Vermess. Geoinf. (VGI)"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Wunderlich, T., Wasmeier, P., Ohlmann-Lauber, J., Sch\u00e4fer, T., and Reidl, F. (2013). Objective Specifications of Terrestrial Laserscanners\u2014A Contribution of the Geodetic Laboratory at the Technische Universit\u00e4t M\u00fcnchen, Technische Universit\u00e4t M\u00fcnchen. Technical Report."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Neitzel, F., Gordon, B., and Wujanz, D. (2018, March 02). Verfahren zur standardisierten \u00dcberpr\u00fcfung von terrestrischen Laserscannern. Available online: www.dvw.de\/merkblatt."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1967","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.1967","article-title":"Experimental image and range scanner datasets fusion in SHM for displacement detection","volume":"24","author":"Sergiyenko","year":"2017","journal-title":"Struct. Control Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Stenz, U., Hartmann, J., Paffenholz, J.-A., and Neumann, I. (2017). A Framework Based on Reference Data with Superordinate Accuracy for the Quality Analysis of Terrestrial Laser Scanning-Based Multi-Sensor-Systems. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17081886"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"1061","article-title":"Influences of Different Materials on the Measurements of a Terrestrial Laser Scanner (TLS)","volume":"37","author":"Voegtle","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1515\/jag-2017-0034","article-title":"Effect of target color and scanning geometry on terrestrial LiDAR point-cloud noise and plane fitting","volume":"12","author":"Bolkas","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geod."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Luhmann, T., and M\u00fcller, C. (2013). Neues profilgebendes 360\u2218-Laserscansystem von Z + F f\u00fcr Mobile Mapping Tr\u00e4gerplattformen. Photogrammetrie Laserscanning Optische 3D-Messtechnik\u2014Beitr\u00e4ge der Oldenburger 3D-Tage, Wichmann Verlag."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2013.07.026","article-title":"Optical monitoring of scoliosis by 3D medical laser scanner","volume":"54","author":"Sergiyenko","year":"2014","journal-title":"Opt. Lasers Eng."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"227","article-title":"Development, Calibration and Evaluation of a Portable and Direct Georeferenced Laser Scanning System for Kinematic 3D Mapping","volume":"9","author":"Heinz","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geod."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"343","article-title":"Interaction of Laser Pulses with the Water Surface\u2014Theoretical Aspects and Experimental Results","volume":"124","author":"Mandlburger","year":"2017","journal-title":"Allg. Vermess.-Nachr. (AVN)"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Lienhart, W. (2017). Analysis of different reference plane setups for the calibration of a mobile laser scanning system. Ingenieurvermessung 17, Beitr\u00e4ge zum 18. Internationalen Ingenieurvermessungskurs, Graz, Austria, Wichmann Verlag."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"IMAR Navigation GmbH (2016, December 23). Inertial Navigation System iNAV-FJI-LSURV. Available online: http:\/\/www.imar.de\/index.php\/en\/products\/by-product-names."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"F\u00f6rstner, W., and Wrobel, B. (2016). Photogrammetric Computer Vision\u2014Statistics, Geometry, Orientation and Reconstruction, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-11550-4"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Mikhail, E.M., and Ackermann, F.E. (1976). Observations and Least Squares, Dun-Donnelley Pub."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Niemeier, W. (2008). Ausgleichungsrechnung\u2014Statistische Auswertemethoden (2. Auflage), de Gruyter Verlag.","DOI":"10.1515\/9783110206784"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Schabenberger, O., and Gotway, C.A. (2005). Statistical Methods for Spatial Data Analysis, Chapman & Hall\/CRC."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/7\/2253\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:11:54Z","timestamp":1760195514000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/7\/2253"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,12]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s18072253"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18072253","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,12]]}}}