{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,26]],"date-time":"2026-02-26T00:22:12Z","timestamp":1772065332045,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,13]],"date-time":"2018-07-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1531440000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100010661","name":"Horizon 2020","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["660566"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["660566"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100010661","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Recent developments in localisation systems for autonomous robotic technology have been a driving factor in the deployment of robots in a wide variety of environments. Estimating sensor measurement noise is an essential factor when producing uncertainty models for state-of-the-art robotic positioning systems. In this paper, a surveying grade optical instrument in the form of a Trimble S7 Robotic Total Station is utilised to dynamically characterise the error of positioning sensors of a ground based unmanned robot. The error characteristics are used as inputs into the construction of a Localisation Extended Kalman Filter which fuses Pozyx Ultra-wideband range measurements with odometry to obtain an optimal position estimation, all whilst using the path generated from the remote tracking feature of the Robotic Total Station as a ground truth metric. Experiments show that the proposed method yields an improved positional estimation compared to the Pozyx systems\u2019 native firmware algorithm as well as producing a smoother trajectory.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18072274","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,16]],"date-time":"2018-07-16T04:05:33Z","timestamp":1531713933000},"page":"2274","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Uncertainty Characterisation of Mobile Robot Localisation Techniques using Optical Surveying Grade Instruments"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6423-5130","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benjamin J.","family":"McLoughlin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Engineering and Technology Research Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, 3 Byrom St, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0212-8417","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Harry A. G.","family":"Pointon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Engineering and Technology Research Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, 3 Byrom St, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"John P.","family":"McLoughlin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Engineering and Technology Research Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, 3 Byrom St, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5961-2464","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andy","family":"Shaw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Engineering and Technology Research Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, 3 Byrom St, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5774-7995","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Frederic A.","family":"Bezombes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Engineering and Technology Research Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, 3 Byrom St, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1002\/rob.20184","article-title":"Two years of visual odometry on the mars exploration rovers","volume":"24","author":"Maimone","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. 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