{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,29]],"date-time":"2026-01-29T22:47:32Z","timestamp":1769726852649,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":19,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,25]],"date-time":"2018-07-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1532476800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We describe a fiber-optic system to measure the liquid level inside a container. The technique is based on the extraction of the temperature profile of the fiber by using a fiber Bragg grating (FBG) array. When the temperatures of the liquid and the gas are different, the liquid level can be estimated. We present a physical model of the system and the experimental results and we compare different algorithms to extract the liquid level from the temperature profile. We also show how air convection influences the temperature profile and the level of estimation accuracy. We finally show dynamic response measurements which are used to obtain the response time of the sensor. Turbomachinery monitoring is proposed as one possible application of the device.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18082422","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,25]],"date-time":"2018-07-25T11:09:30Z","timestamp":1532516970000},"page":"2422","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Fiber-Optic Liquid Level Sensing by Temperature Profiling with an FBG Array"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Francesco","family":"Barone","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Scuola Superiore Sant\u2019Anna, TeCIP Institute; Via Giuseppe Moruzzi 1, 56127 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alessandro","family":"Signorini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Infibra Technologies; Via Scornigiana 42, 56121 Ospedaletto, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Laurent","family":"Ntibarikure","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Baker Hughes, a GE Company, Nuovo Pignone Tecnologie; Via Felice Matteucci 2, 50127 Florence, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tiziano","family":"Fiore","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Baker Hughes, a GE Company, Nuovo Pignone Tecnologie; Via Felice Matteucci 2, 50127 Florence, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fabrizio","family":"Di Pasquale","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Scuola Superiore Sant\u2019Anna, TeCIP Institute; Via Giuseppe Moruzzi 1, 56127 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Claudio J.","family":"Oton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Scuola Superiore Sant\u2019Anna, TeCIP Institute; Via Giuseppe Moruzzi 1, 56127 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"AZO Materials (2018, June 21). 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A Heat Transfer Textbook, Courier Corporation."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/8\/2422\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:14:22Z","timestamp":1760195662000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/8\/2422"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,25]]},"references-count":19,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s18082422"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18082422","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,25]]}}}