{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,3]],"date-time":"2026-04-03T20:23:59Z","timestamp":1775247839257,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":142,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,13]],"date-time":"2018-08-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1534118400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/N509474\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/N509474\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100009324","name":"Tommy's","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["N-A"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N-A"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100009324","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This article reviews existing clinical practices and sensor research undertaken to monitor fetal well-being during labour. Current clinical practices that include fetal heart rate monitoring and fetal scalp blood sampling are shown to be either inadequate or time-consuming. Monitoring of lactate in blood is identified as a potential alternative for intrapartum fetal monitoring due to its ability to distinguish between different types of acidosis. A literature review from a medical and technical perspective is presented to identify the current advancements in the field of lactate sensors for this application. It is concluded that a less invasive and a more continuous monitoring device is required to fulfill the clinical needs of intrapartum fetal monitoring. Potential specifications for such a system are also presented in this paper.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18082648","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,13]],"date-time":"2018-08-13T11:27:13Z","timestamp":1534159633000},"page":"2648","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Sensors for Fetal Hypoxia and Metabolic Acidosis: A Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3285-4647","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gerard","family":"Cummins","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Sensors, Signals and Systems, Heriot-Watt University, Riccarton EH14 4AS, Scotland, UK"}]},{"given":"Jessica","family":"Kremer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Sensors, Signals and Systems, Heriot-Watt University, Riccarton EH14 4AS, Scotland, UK"}]},{"given":"Anne","family":"Bernassau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Sensors, Signals and Systems, Heriot-Watt University, Riccarton EH14 4AS, Scotland, UK"}]},{"given":"Andrew","family":"Brown","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MRC Centre for Reproductive Health, Queen\u2019s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, Scotland, UK"}]},{"given":"Helen L.","family":"Bridle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Sensors, Signals and Systems, Heriot-Watt University, Riccarton EH14 4AS, Scotland, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6446-2824","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Holger","family":"Schulze","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infection and Pathway Medicine, Edinburgh Medical School, The Chancellor\u2019s Building, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, Scotland, UK"}]},{"given":"Till T.","family":"Bachmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Infection and Pathway Medicine, Edinburgh Medical School, The Chancellor\u2019s Building, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, Scotland, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3683-802X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael","family":"Crichton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Mechanical, Processing and Energy Engineering, Heriot-Watt University, Riccarton EH14 4AS, Scotland, UK"}]},{"given":"Fiona C.","family":"Denison","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MRC Centre for Reproductive Health, Queen\u2019s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, Scotland, UK"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2441-1598","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marc P. Y.","family":"Desmulliez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Sensors, Signals and Systems, Heriot-Watt University, Riccarton EH14 4AS, Scotland, UK"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijgo.2015.06.018","article-title":"FIGO consensus guidelines on intrapartum fetal monitoring: Physiology of fetal oxygenation and the main goals of intrapartum fetal monitoring","volume":"131","author":"Spong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"772","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9378(16)35194-8","article-title":"Instrumentation of fetal heart rate and fetal electrocardiography. II. A vaginal electrode","volume":"86","author":"Hon","year":"1963","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"137","article-title":"The Classification of Fetal Heart Rate. 1. A Working Classification","volume":"22","author":"Hon","year":"1963","journal-title":"Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"NICE (2017). Intrapartum Care: Care of Healthy Women and Their Babies During Childbirth, NICE."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpobgyn.2015.03.022","article-title":"Continuous cardiotocography during labour: Analysis, classification and management","volume":"30","author":"Pinas","year":"2016","journal-title":"Best Pract. Res. Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clp.2010.12.002","article-title":"Electronic Fetal Monitoring: Past, Present, and Future","volume":"38","author":"Stout","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Perinatol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-2243(93)90220-7","article-title":"Interobserver variation in the assessment of fetal heart rate recordings","volume":"52","author":"Donker","year":"1993","journal-title":"Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alfirevic, Z., Devane, D., Gyte, G.M.L., and Cuthbert, A. (2017). Continuous cardiotocography (CTG) as a form of electronic fetal monitoring (EFM) for fetal assessment during labour. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 2017.","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD006066.pub3"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1797","DOI":"10.1111\/1471-0528.13817","article-title":"Neonatal complications associated with use of fetal scalp electrode: A retrospective study","volume":"123","author":"Kawakita","year":"2016","journal-title":"BJOG An Int. J. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"067008","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.19.6.067008","article-title":"Examiner\u2019s finger-mounted fetal tissue oximetry","volume":"19","author":"Kanayama","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uchida, T., Kanayama, N., Mukai, M., Furuta, N., Itoh, H., Suzuki, H., and Niwayama, M. (2015). Examiner\u2019s finger-mounted fetal tissue oximetry: A preliminary report on 30 cases. J. Perinat. Med., 2015.","DOI":"10.1515\/jpm-2014-0297"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1549","DOI":"10.1067\/mob.2000.107736","article-title":"Assessment of fetal scalp oxygen saturation determination in the sheep by transmission pulse oximetry","volume":"183","author":"Nijland","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"East, C.E., Begg, L., Colditz, P.B., and Lau, R. (2014). Fetal pulse oximetry for fetal assessment in labour. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 10.","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD004075.pub4"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(01)05703-8","article-title":"Cardiotocography only versus cardiotocography plus ST analysis of fetal electrocardiogram for intrapartum fetal monitoring: A Swedish randomised controlled trial","volume":"358","author":"Hellsten","year":"2001","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/0140-6736(92)90465-F","article-title":"Randomised trial of cardiotocography alone or with ST waveform analysis for intrapartum monitoring","volume":"340","author":"Westgate","year":"1992","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-0528.2006.00886.x","article-title":"A comparison of intrapartum automated fetal electrocardiography and conventional cardiotocography-a randomised controlled study","volume":"113","author":"Ojala","year":"2006","journal-title":"BJOG An Int. J. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vayssi\u00e8re, C., David, E., Meyer, N., Haberstich, R., Sebahoun, V., Roth, E., Favre, R., Nisand, I., and Langer, B. (2007). A French randomized controlled trial of ST-segment analysis in a population with abnormal cardiotocograms during labor. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol., 197.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2007.07.007"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1500600","article-title":"A Randomized Trial of Intrapartum Fetal ECG ST-Segment Analysis","volume":"373","author":"Belfort","year":"2015","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"464","article-title":"[Technic for the Endoscopic Micro-Sampling of Blood from the Fetus]","volume":"24","author":"Saling","year":"1964","journal-title":"Geburtshilfe Frauenheilkd."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"906","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9378(67)90515-7","article-title":"pH values in the human fetus during labor","volume":"97","author":"Bretscher","year":"1967","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Gibb, D., and Arulkumaran, S. (2017). Fetal Monitoring in Practice, Churchill Livingstone. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-0528.2006.00859.x","article-title":"How long does a fetal scalp blood sample take?","volume":"113","author":"Tuffnell","year":"2006","journal-title":"BJOG An Int. J. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-0528.1998.tb09346.x","article-title":"Lactate compared with pH analysis at fetal scalp blood sampling: A prospective randomised study","volume":"105","author":"Westgren","year":"1998","journal-title":"Br. J. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1471-0528.2003.02356.x","article-title":"Influence on fetal blood pH when adding amniotic fluid: An in vitro model","volume":"110","author":"Kainz","year":"2003","journal-title":"BJOG An Int. J. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1461","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiochem.2008.08.088","article-title":"Comparison and validation of point of care lactate meters as a replacement for fetal pH measurement","volume":"41","author":"Ridenour","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Mowbray, D., Nordstr\u00f6m, L., Ofunne, W., and Akhtar, S. (2015). Is it Time for UK Obstetricians to Accept Fetal Scalp Lactate as an Alternative to Scalp pH?. R. Coll. Obstet. Gynaecol., 1\u20136."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1072","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9378(99)70083-9","article-title":"Predictive value of fetal scalp blood lactate concentration and pH as markers of neurologic disability","volume":"181","author":"Kruger","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijgo.2015.06.020","article-title":"FIGO consensus guidelines on intrapartum fetal monitoring: Cardiotocography","volume":"131","author":"Spong","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Fry, M. (2010). Essential Biochemistry for Medicine, Wiley-Blackwell. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpobgyn.2015.05.006","article-title":"Foetal scalp blood sampling during labour for pH and lactate measurements","volume":"30","author":"Carbonne","year":"2016","journal-title":"Best Pract. Res. Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Office for National Statistics Office for National Statistics (2018, January 21). Birth characteristics, Available online: https:\/\/www.ons.gov.uk\/peoplepopulationandcommunity\/%0Abirthsdeathsandmarriages\/livebirths\/datasets\/%0Abirthcharacteristicsinenglandandwales."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Office for National Statistics Office for National Statistics (2018, January 21). Live births, neonatal and post neonatal deaths by selected causes mentioned on death certificate, England and Wales, 2001 to 2015, Available online: https:\/\/www.ons.gov.uk\/peoplepopulationandcommunity\/birthsdeathsandmarriages\/deaths\/adhocs\/006955livebirthsneonatalandpostneonataldeathsbyselectedcausesmentionedondeathcertificateenglandandwales2001to2015."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"799","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-0528.1967.tb15561.x","article-title":"Biochemical supervision of the foetus during labour","volume":"74","author":"Saling","year":"1967","journal-title":"J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Br. Commonw."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"824","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-0528.2012.03335.x","article-title":"The relationship between umbilical cord arterial pH and serious adverse neonatal outcome: Analysis of 51,519 consecutive validated samples","volume":"119","author":"Yeh","year":"2012","journal-title":"BJOG"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1515\/JPM.2008.043","article-title":"Relationships between umbilical cord arterial blood pH levels at delivery and Bayley Psychomotor Development Index scores in early childhood","volume":"36","author":"Mittendorf","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Perinat. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajog.2015.06.037","article-title":"Determination of base excess in umbilical cord blood at birth: Accessory or excess?","volume":"213","author":"Olofsson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S113","DOI":"10.1016\/S0301-2115(03)00181-7","article-title":"Current status of intrapartum fetal monitoring: Cardiotocography versus cardiotocography + ST analysis of the fetal ECG","volume":"110","author":"Olofsson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1391","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-9378(97)70080-2","article-title":"Threshold of metabolic acidosis associated with newborn complications","volume":"177","author":"Low","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1054","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.319.7216.1054","article-title":"A template for defining a causal relation between acute intrapartum events and cerebral palsy: International consensus statement","volume":"319","author":"MacLennan","year":"1999","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jogc.2018.02.007","article-title":"No. 197a-Fetal Health Surveillance: Antepartum Consensus Guideline","volume":"40","author":"Liston","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Can."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1375","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(00)02840-3","article-title":"Planned caesarean section versus planned vaginal birth for breech presentation at term: A randomised multicentre trial. Term Breech Trial Collaborative Group","volume":"356","author":"Hannah","year":"2000","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1006\/exnr.1997.6482","article-title":"Effect of perinatal asphyxia on systemic and intracerebral pH and glycolysis metabolism in the rat","volume":"145","author":"Engidawork","year":"1997","journal-title":"Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1284","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.39553.406991.25","article-title":"Determination of pH or lactate in fetal scalp blood in management of intrapartum fetal distress: Randomised controlled multicentre trial","volume":"336","author":"Lipponer","year":"2008","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijgo.2015.06.021","article-title":"FIGO consensus guidelines on intrapartum fetal monitoring: Adjunctive technologies","volume":"131","author":"Visser","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Gynecol. Obstet."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-anchem-071114-040443","article-title":"Real-Time Monitoring of Critical Care Analytes in the Bloodstream with Chemical Sensors: Progress and Challenges","volume":"8","author":"Frost","year":"2015","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ranamukhaarachchi, S.A., Padeste, C., Hafeli, U.O., Stoeber, B., and Cadarso, V.J. (2018). Design considerations of a hollow microneedle-optofluidic biosensing platform incorporating enzyme-linked assays. J. Micromech. Microeng.","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6439\/aa9c9c"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2655","DOI":"10.1039\/c0lc00068j","article-title":"Surface-modified microprojection arrays for intradermal biomarker capture, with low non-specific protein binding","volume":"10","author":"Corrie","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lab Chip"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5942","DOI":"10.1021\/ac025944g","article-title":"In Vivo Biocompatibility and Analytical Performance of Intravascular Amperometric Oxygen Sensors Prepared with Improved Nitric Oxide-Releasing Silicone Rubber Coating","volume":"74","author":"Frost","year":"2002","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1846","DOI":"10.1039\/c1an00012h","article-title":"Microneedle array-based carbon paste amperometric sensors and biosensors","volume":"136","author":"Windmiller","year":"2011","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.protcy.2017.04.087","article-title":"Minimally Invasive Microneedle Array Electrodes Employing Direct Electron Transfer Type Glucose Dehydrogenase for the Development of Continuous Glucose Monitoring Sensors","volume":"27","author":"Sharma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Procedia Technol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1021\/ac202878q","article-title":"Electrochemical sensors and biosensors","volume":"84","author":"Kimmel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1002\/elan.201100511","article-title":"Stabilised Biosensing Using Needle-Based Recess Electrodes","volume":"24","author":"Anastasova","year":"2012","journal-title":"Electroanalysis"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2606","DOI":"10.1002\/adhm.201500450","article-title":"Microneedles for Transdermal Biosensing: Current Picture and Future Direction","volume":"4","author":"Ventrelli","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Healthc. Mater."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1260\/2040-2295.4.4.529","article-title":"Evaluation of Postprandial Glucose Excursion Using a Novel Minimally Invasive Glucose Area-Under-the-Curve Monitoring System","volume":"4","author":"Kuranuki","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Healthc. Eng."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2088","DOI":"10.1039\/C8AY00264A","article-title":"A pilot study in humans of microneedle sensor arrays for continuous glucose monitoring","volume":"10","author":"Sharma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anal. Methods"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1177\/1932296814526191","article-title":"Design, development, and evaluation of a novel microneedle array-based continuous glucose monitor","volume":"8","author":"Jina","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kopterides, P., Theodorakopoulou, M., Ilias, I., Nikitas, N., Frantzeskaki, F., Vassiliadi, D.A., Armaganidis, A., and Dimopoulou, I. (2012). Interrelationship between blood and tissue lactate in a general intensive care unit: A subcutaneous adipose tissue microdialysis study on 162 critically ill patients. J. Crit. Care, 27.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrc.2012.08.003"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6269","DOI":"10.3390\/s120506269","article-title":"Wireless biosensor system for Real-Time L-lactic acid monitoring in fish","volume":"12","author":"Hibi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4083","DOI":"10.2337\/db13-1132","article-title":"Time Lag of Glucose From Intravascular to Interstitial Compartment in Humans","volume":"62","author":"Basu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/s10544-016-0049-z","article-title":"Lactate and glucose measurement in subepidermal tissue using minimally invasive microperfusion needle","volume":"18","author":"Tsuruoka","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomed. Microdevices"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smim.2007.11.004","article-title":"Foreign body reaction to biomaterials","volume":"20","author":"Anderson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Semin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2528","DOI":"10.1021\/cr300387j","article-title":"Biocompatible Materials for Continuous Glucose Monitoring Devices","volume":"113","author":"Nichols","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Madani, S.Y., Mandel, A., and Seifalian, A.M. (2013). A concise review of carbon nanotube\u2019s toxicology. Nano Rev.","DOI":"10.3402\/nano.v4i0.21521"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6553","DOI":"10.1021\/ac401573r","article-title":"Electrochemical Tattoo Biosensors for Real-Time Noninvasive Lactate Monitoring in Human Perspiration","volume":"85","author":"Jia","year":"2013","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.3390\/bios5030398","article-title":"Characterization of lactate sensors based on lactate oxidase and palladium benzoporphyrin immobilized in hydrogels","volume":"5","author":"Andrus","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biosensors"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rocchitta, G., Spanu, A., Babudieri, S., Latte, G., Madeddu, G., Galleri, G., Nuvoli, S., Bagella, P., Demartis, M.I., and Fiore, V. (2016). Enzyme biosensors for biomedical applications: Strategies for safeguarding analytical performances in biological fluids. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16060780"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2009.10.002","article-title":"An exercise degree monitoring biosensor based on electrochemiluminescent detection of lactate in sweat","volume":"143","author":"Cai","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2015.01.120","article-title":"Enzymatic lactic acid sensing by In-doped ZnO nanowires functionalized AlGaAs\/GaAs high electron mobility transistor","volume":"212","author":"Ma","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2011.12.031","article-title":"Low potential detection of NADH based on Fe3O4 nanoparticles\/multiwalled carbon nanotubes composite: Fabrication of integrated dehydrogenase-based lactate biosensor","volume":"33","author":"Teymourian","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(03)00225-2","article-title":"Electrochemiluminescent biosensors array for the concomitant detection of choline, glucose, glutamate, lactate, lysine and urate","volume":"19","author":"Marquette","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8123","DOI":"10.1021\/ac2016272","article-title":"Amperometric detection of l-lactate using nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes modified with lactate oxidase","volume":"83","author":"Goran","year":"2011","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bioelechem.2014.07.005","article-title":"Graphitized carbon nanofiber-Pt nanoparticle hybrids as sensitive tool for preparation of screen printing biosensors. Detection of lactate in wines and ciders","volume":"101","author":"Loaiza","year":"2015","journal-title":"Bioelectrochemistry"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2996","DOI":"10.1021\/ac5047455","article-title":"Platinum-doped ceria based biosensor for in vitro and in vivo monitoring of lactate during hypoxia","volume":"87","author":"Sardesai","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5082","DOI":"10.1021\/ac100074n","article-title":"Optical detection of single cell lactate release for cancer metabolic analysis","volume":"82","author":"Zheng","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2005.846173","article-title":"Design of a subcutaneous implantable biochip for monitoring of glucose and lactate","volume":"5","author":"Brahim","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2015.03.012","article-title":"A novel amperometric biosensor based on gold nanoparticles anchored on reduced graphene oxide for sensitive detection of l-lactate tumor biomarker","volume":"69","author":"Azzouzi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1070","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msec.2007.04.033","article-title":"Development of an amperometric l-lactate biosensor based on l-lactate oxidase immobilized through silica sol\u2013gel film on multi-walled carbon nanotubes\/platinum nanoparticle modified glassy carbon electrode","volume":"28","author":"Huang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. C"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2007.03.004","article-title":"Highly sensitive lactate biosensor by engineering chitosan\/PVI-Os\/CNT\/LOD network nanocomposite","volume":"22","author":"Cui","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2015.11.005","article-title":"Electrochemical lactate biosensor based upon chitosan\/carbon nanotubes modified screen-printed graphite electrodes for the determination of lactate in embryonic cell cultures","volume":"77","author":"Montiel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"973","DOI":"10.1016\/S0039-9140(96)02164-9","article-title":"Sol-gel based amperometric biosensor incorporating an osmium redox polymer as mediator for detection of l-lactate","volume":"44","author":"Park","year":"1997","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3173","DOI":"10.1021\/ac950630x","article-title":"Thin-Film Microbiosensors for Glucose\u2212Lactate Monitoring","volume":"68","author":"Jobst","year":"1996","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(03)00038-1","article-title":"Microdevice with integrated dialysis probe and biosensor array for continuous multi-analyte monitoring","volume":"18","author":"Petrou","year":"2003","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1601","DOI":"10.1021\/ac9027615","article-title":"Sol-Gel immobilization of lactate oxidase from organic solvent: Toward the advanced lactate biosensor","volume":"82","author":"Yashina","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(01)00287-1","article-title":"Sol-gel encapsulation of lactate dehydrogenase for optical sensing of L-lactate","volume":"17","author":"Li","year":"2002","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"972","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2015.11.066","article-title":"Thin-film amperometric multibiosensor for simultaneous determination of lactate and glucose in wine","volume":"197","author":"Shkotova","year":"2016","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2015.06.002","article-title":"A novel OFET-based biosensor for the selective and sensitive detection of lactate levels","volume":"74","author":"Minami","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2456","DOI":"10.3390\/s120302456","article-title":"Electrochemical L-lactic acid sensor based on immobilized ZnO nanorods with lactate oxidase","volume":"12","author":"Ibupoto","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5568","DOI":"10.1021\/ac1004426","article-title":"Amperometric biosensor for direct blood lactate detection","volume":"82","author":"Romero","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(02)00249-6","article-title":"Microfluidic device integrated with pre-reactor and dual enzyme-modified microelectrodes for monitoring in vivo glucose and lactate","volume":"87","author":"Kurita","year":"2002","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proche.2009.07.069","article-title":"Application of Amperometric Enzyme Biosensors for Wine and Must Analysis","volume":"1","author":"Goriushkina","year":"2009","journal-title":"Procedia Chem."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2016.01.076","article-title":"Screen-printed biosensor chips with Prussian blue nanocubes for the detection of physiological analytes","volume":"228","author":"Jiang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2007.912919","article-title":"Needle enzyme electrode for lactate measurement in vivo","volume":"8","author":"Rong","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1007\/s10544-006-9018-2","article-title":"Study of on-line monitoring of lactate based on optical fibre sensor and in-channel mixing mechanism","volume":"9","author":"Wu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biomed. Microdevices"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-018-2820-8","article-title":"Advances in the design of nanomaterial-based electrochemical affinity and enzymatic biosensors for metabolic biomarkers: A review","volume":"185","author":"Farzin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.semcdb.2009.01.009","article-title":"A review of the use of genetically engineered enzymes in electrochemical biosensors","volume":"20","author":"Marty","year":"2009","journal-title":"Semin. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-013-7307-1","article-title":"Lactate biosensors: Current status and outlook","volume":"406","author":"Rassaei","year":"2014","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(97)00014-6","article-title":"Amperometric lactate oxidase catheter for real-time lactate monitoring based on thin film technology","volume":"12","author":"Pfeiffer","year":"1997","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"35","article-title":"Biosensors based on electrochemical lactate detection: A comprehensive review","volume":"5","author":"Rathee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Rep."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-2670(93)85008-8","article-title":"A needle-type enzyme-based lactate sensor for in vivo monitoring","volume":"281","author":"Hu","year":"1993","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(98)00109-2","article-title":"Needle-type lactate biosensor","volume":"14","author":"Yang","year":"1999","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2011.11.053","article-title":"Amperometric l-lactate biosensor based on screen-printed carbon electrode containing cobalt phthalocyanine, coated with lactate oxidase-mesoporous silica conjugate layer","volume":"714","author":"Shimomura","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(00)00107-X","article-title":"Simultaneous monitoring of glucose and lactate by an interference and cross-talk free dual electrode amperometric biosensor based on electropolymerized thin films","volume":"15","author":"Palmisano","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2005.12.025","article-title":"Novel lactate and pH biosensor for skin and sweat analysis based on single walled carbon nanotubes","volume":"117","author":"Weber","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3351","DOI":"10.1016\/S0013-4686(02)00272-4","article-title":"Nile blue adsorbed onto silica gel modified with niobium oxide for electrocatalytic oxidation of NADH","volume":"47","author":"Santos","year":"2002","journal-title":"Electrochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ab.2008.09.030","article-title":"A lactate biosensor based on lactate dehydrogenase\/nictotinamide adenine dinucleotide (oxidized form) immobilized on a conducting polymer\/multiwall carbon nanotube composite film","volume":"384","author":"Rahman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2016.07.076","article-title":"Determination of lactic acid with special emphasis on biosensing methods: A review","volume":"86","author":"Pundir","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1007\/s12010-014-0850-1","article-title":"Luminol-Based Chemiluminescent Signals: Clinical and Non-clinical Application and Future Uses","volume":"173","author":"Khan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1539\/joh.17-0089-RA","article-title":"Review of toxicity studies of carbon nanotubes","volume":"59","author":"Kobayashi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Occup. Health"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"453","DOI":"10.1039\/B711564B","article-title":"Understanding enzyme immobilisation","volume":"38","author":"Hanefeld","year":"2009","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-2670(99)00797-7","article-title":"Co-immobilization of lactate oxidase and lactate dehydrogenase on conducting polyaniline films","volume":"407","author":"Chaubey","year":"2000","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1007\/s10450-014-9623-y","article-title":"Enzyme immobilization by adsorption: A review","volume":"20","author":"Jesionowski","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adsorption"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B\u0103nic\u0103, F.-G. (2012). Chemical Sensors and Biosensors, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118354162"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1080\/13102818.2015.1008192","article-title":"An overview of technologies for immobilization of enzymes and surface analysis techniques for immobilized enzymes","volume":"29","author":"Mohamad","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Biotechnol. Equip."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6211","DOI":"10.1039\/c3cs90042h","article-title":"Enzyme immobilisation: Fundamentals and application","volume":"42","author":"Hanefeld","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2004.01.008","article-title":"Amperometric determination of lactate with novel trienzyme\/poly(carbamoyl) sulfonate hydrogel-based sensor","volume":"19","author":"Kwan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1016\/j.colsurfb.2014.12.053","article-title":"Gold nanoparticles coated zinc oxide nanorods as the matrix for enhanced l-lactate sensing","volume":"126","author":"Zhao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Colloid Surf. B"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2004.12.016","article-title":"Development of a lactate biosensor based on conducting copolymer bound lactate oxidase","volume":"107","author":"Suman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(02)00219-8","article-title":"Preliminary estimates of lactic and malic acid in wine using electrodes printed from inks containing sol-gel precursors","volume":"87","author":"Hart","year":"2002","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2014.01.047","article-title":"Disposable amperometric biosensor based on lactate oxidase immobilised on platinum nanoparticle-decorated carbon nanofiber and poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) films","volume":"56","author":"Loaiza","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(00)00087-7","article-title":"Miniaturized real-time monitoring system for L-lactate and glucose using microfabricated multi-enzyme sensors","volume":"15","author":"Perdomo","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2012.10.021","article-title":"Highly sensitive conductometric biosensors for total lactate, D- and L-lactate determination in dairy products","volume":"179","author":"Saulnier","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1007\/PL00021398","article-title":"Development of an Optical Fiber Lactate Sensor","volume":"131","author":"Liu","year":"1999","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"698","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2017.2715071","article-title":"Noninvasive In-Situ Measurement of Blood Lactate Using Microwave Sensors","volume":"65","author":"Mason","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Broder, G., and Weil, M.H. (1964). Excess Lactate: An Index of Reversibility of Shock in Human Patients. Science.","DOI":"10.1126\/science.143.3613.1457"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1007\/s00604-004-0273-8","article-title":"Progress in Enzyme-Based Biosensors Using Optical Transducers","volume":"148","author":"Choi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Microchim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_126","unstructured":"Tabata, M., Fukunaga, C., Ohyabu, M., and Murachi, T. (1984). Highly sensitive flow injection analysis of glucose and uric acid in serum using an immobilized enzyme column and chemiluminescence. J. Appl. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7694","DOI":"10.3390\/s91007694","article-title":"A portable luminometer with a disposable electrochemiluminescent biosensor for lactate determination","volume":"9","author":"Palma","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1016\/0141-0229(94)90008-6","article-title":"Enhancement of the response of a lactate oxidase\/peroxidase-based fiberoptic sensor by compartmentalization of the enzyme layer","volume":"16","author":"Berger","year":"1994","journal-title":"Enzyme Microb. Technol."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marquette, C.A., and Blum, L.J. (1999). Luminol electrochemiluminescence-based fibre optic biosensors for flow injection analysis of glucose and lactate in natural samples. Anal. Chim. Acta.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-2670(98)00703-X"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1523-1747.2001.01258.x","article-title":"In vivo confocal raman microspectroscopy of the skin: Noninvasive determination of molecular concentration profiles","volume":"116","author":"Caspers","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Invest. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1007\/PL00011332","article-title":"Analysis of near-infrared Raman spectroscopy as a new technique for a transcutaneous non-invasive diagnosis of blood components","volume":"16","author":"Pilotto","year":"2001","journal-title":"Lasers Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6927","DOI":"10.1021\/ac0704107","article-title":"Lactate and Sequential Lactate\u2212Glucose Sensing Using Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy","volume":"79","author":"Shah","year":"2007","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vibspec.2004.01.020","article-title":"In vivo lactate measurement in human tissue by near-infrared diffuse reflectance spectroscopy","volume":"36","author":"Lafrance","year":"2004","journal-title":"Vib. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1111\/ijd.13856","article-title":"Decrease of superficial serine and lactate in the stratum corneum due to repetitive frictional trauma","volume":"57","author":"Wong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vibspec.2016.02.003","article-title":"High-speed line-focus Raman microscopy with spectral decomposition of mouse skin","volume":"83","author":"Ilchenko","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vib. Spectrosc."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2133.2007.08311.x","article-title":"Comparison of the depth profiles of water and water-binding substances in the stratum corneum determined in vivo by Raman spectroscopy between the cheek and volar forearm skin: Effects of age, seasonal changes and artificial forced hydration","volume":"158","author":"Egawa","year":"2008","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pletcher, D. (2009). A First Course in Electrode Processes, Royal Society of Chemistry. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1039\/9781839169083"},{"key":"ref_138","unstructured":"Brett, C.M.A. (1993). Electrochemistry: Principles, Methods, and Applications, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1254","DOI":"10.1039\/b712478c","article-title":"Electrochemically-assisted deposition of oxidases on platinum nanoparticle\/multi-walled carbon nanotube-modified electrodes","volume":"132","author":"Male","year":"2007","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msec.2006.01.001","article-title":"A highly-sensitive l-lactate biosensor based on sol-gel film combined with multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) modified electrode","volume":"27","author":"Huang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. C"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2060","DOI":"10.1021\/ac020765k","article-title":"Coupling the lactate oxidase to electrodes by ionotropic gelation of biopolymer","volume":"75","author":"Wei","year":"2003","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.taap.2003.10.019","article-title":"Toxicity of indium arsenide, gallium arsenide, and aluminium gallium arsenide","volume":"198","author":"Tanaka","year":"2004","journal-title":"Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/8\/2648\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:18:21Z","timestamp":1760195901000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/8\/2648"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,13]]},"references-count":142,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s18082648"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18082648","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,13]]}}}