{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,28]],"date-time":"2026-05-28T01:46:24Z","timestamp":1779932784482,"version":"3.53.1"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,20]],"date-time":"2018-08-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1534723200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000001","name":"National Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["CMMI#1637899"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CMMI#1637899"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000001","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this paper, we develop new methods to assess safety risks of an integrated GNSS\/LiDAR navigation system for highly automated vehicle (HAV) applications. LiDAR navigation requires feature extraction (FE) and data association (DA). In prior work, we established an FE and DA risk prediction algorithm assuming that the set of extracted features matched the set of mapped landmarks. This paper addresses these limiting assumptions by incorporating a Kalman filter innovation-based test to detect unwanted object (UO). UO include unmapped, moving, and wrongly excluded landmarks. An integrity risk bound is derived to account for the risk of not detecting UO. Direct simulations and preliminary testing help quantify the impact on integrity and continuity of UO monitoring in an example GNSS\/LiDAR implementation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18082740","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,20]],"date-time":"2018-08-20T11:23:06Z","timestamp":1534764186000},"page":"2740","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["A New Approach to Unwanted-Object Detection in GNSS\/LiDAR-Based Navigation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6391-9095","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mathieu","family":"Joerger","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Aerospace &amp; Mechanical Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guillermo","family":"Duenas Arana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Armour College of Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL 60616, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matthew","family":"Spenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Armour College of Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL 60616, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Boris","family":"Pervan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Armour College of Engineering, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, IL 60616, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Joerger, M., Duenas Arana, G., Spenko, M., and Pervan, B. (2017, January 25\u201329). Landmark Data Selection and Unmapped Obstacle Detection in Lidar-Based Navigation. Proceedings of the ION GNSS+, Portland, OR, USA.","DOI":"10.33012\/2017.15406"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"(2018, May 18). U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), Available online: https:\/\/www.nhtsa.gov\/manufacturers\/automated-driving-systems."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2018, May 18). Federal Automated Vehicles Policy\u2014September 2016, Available online: https:\/\/www.transportation.gov\/AV\/federal-automated-vehicles-policy-september-2016."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2018, May 18). RTCA Special Committee 159, Minimum Aviation System Performance Standards for the Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS). Available online: https:\/\/standards.globalspec.com\/std\/11988\/rtca-do-245."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2018, May 18). DOT Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), Vehicle Positioning Trade Study for ITS Applications, Available online: https:\/\/rosap.ntl.bts.gov\/view\/dot\/3319\/Print."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Lee, Y.C. (1986, January 24\u201326). Analysis of Range and Position Comparison Methods as a Means to Provide GPS Integrity in the User Receiver. Proceedings of the 42nd Annual Meeting of The Institute of Navigation (1986), Seattle, WA, USA."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1002\/j.2161-4296.1988.tb00955.x","article-title":"Autonomous GPS Integrity Monitoring Using the Pseudorange Residual","volume":"35","author":"Parkinson","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Inst. Navig."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"(2018, May 18). RTCA Special Committee 159, Minimum Operational Performance Standards for Global Positioning System\/Wide Area Augmentation System Airborne Equipment. Available online: https:\/\/standards.globalspec.com\/std\/1239716\/rtca-do-229."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1008854305733","article-title":"Globally Consistent Range Scan Alignment for Environment Mapping","volume":"4","author":"Lu","year":"1997","journal-title":"Ayton. Robots"},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"625","article-title":"Using Histogram Correlation to Create Consistent Laser Scan Maps","volume":"1","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Intell. Robots Syst."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"3317","article-title":"Laser scan matching in polar coordinates with application to SLAM","volume":"5","author":"Diosi","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Robots Syst."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/S0921-8890(03)00008-3","article-title":"Robot localization based on scan-matching-estimating the covariance matrix for the IDC algorithm","volume":"44","author":"Bengtsson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Robot. Autom. Syst."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Rusinkiewicz, S., and Levoy, M. (June, January 28). Efficient Variants of the ICP Algorithm. Proceedings of the Third International Conference on 3-D Digital Imaging and Modeling, Quebec City, QC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"918","article-title":"Tracking and Data Association","volume":"179","author":"Fortmann","year":"1988","journal-title":"Math. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Leonard, J., and Durrant-Whyte, H. (1992). Directed Sonar Sensing for Mobile Robot Navigation, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-3652-9"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Lakemeyer, G., and Nebel, B. (2003). Robotic Mapping: A Survey. Exploring Artificial Intelligence in the New Millenium, Morgan Kaufmann."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Cooper, A.J. (2005). A Comparison of Data Association Techniques for Simultaneous Localization and Mapping. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Massachussetts Institute of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Ruiz, I.T., Petillot, Y., Lane, D.M., and Salson, C. (2001, January 21\u201326). Feature Extraction and Data Association for AUV Concurrent Mapping and Localisation. Proceedings of the 2001 ICRA. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (Cat. No.01CH37164), Seoul, Korea."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tareen, S.A.K., and Saleem, Z. (2018, January 3\u20134). A comparative analysis of SIFT, SURF, KAZE, AKAZE, ORB, and BRISK. Proceedings of the 2018 International Conference on Computing, Mathematics and Engineering Technologies (iCoMET), Sukkur, Pakistan.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICOMET.2018.8346440"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1109\/70.938381","article-title":"A Solution to the Simultaneous Localization and Map Building (SLAM) Problem","volume":"17","author":"Dissanayake","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Robot. Autom."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feng, Y., Schlichting, A., and Brenner, C. (2016, January 12\u201319). 3D Feature Point Extraction from LiDAR Data Using a Neural Network. Proceedings of the International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Prague, Cezch.","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLI-B1-563-2016"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10356","DOI":"10.3390\/s101110356","article-title":"A General Purpose Feature Extractor for Light Detection and Ranging Data","volume":"10","author":"Li","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, J., and Kang, H. (2018). A New 3D Object Pose Detection Method Using LIDAR Shape Set. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18030882"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1109\/MCS.2009.934469","article-title":"The Probabilistic Data Association Filter","volume":"29","author":"Daum","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Control Syst. Mag."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"113","article-title":"Misassociation Probability in M2TA and T2TA","volume":"2","author":"Areta","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Adv. Inf. Fusion"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Joerger, M., Jamoom, M., Spenko, M., and Pervan, B. (2016, January 11\u201314). Integrity of Laser-Based Feature Extraction and Data Association. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE\/ION Position, Location and Navigation Symposium (PLANS), Savannah, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PLANS.2016.7479746"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Joerger, M., and Pervan, B. (February, January 30). Continuity Risk of Feature Extraction for Laser-Based Navigation. Proceedings of the 2017 International Technical Meeting of The Institute of Navigation, Monterey, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.33012\/2017.14899"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Joerger, M., and Pervan, B. (2018). Quantifying Safety of Laser-Based Navigation. IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst.","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2018.2850381"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, C., Lee, Y., Park, J., and Lee, J. (2018, January 7\u20139). Diminishing unwanted objects based on object detection using deep learning and image inpainting. Proceedings of the 2018 International Workshop on Advanced Image Technology (IWAIT), Chiang Mai, Thailand.","DOI":"10.1109\/IWAIT.2018.8369785"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.robot.2016.06.007","article-title":"3D Lidar-based static and moving obstacle detection in driving environments: An approach based on voxels and multi-region ground planes","volume":"83","author":"Asvadi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Robot. Autom. Syst."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"DeCleene, B. (2000, January 19\u201322). Defining Pseudorange Integrity\u2014Overbounding. Proceedings of the 13th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GPS 2000), Salt Lake City, UT, USA."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1386","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2006.314579","article-title":"Paired Overbounding for Nonideal LAAS and WAAS Error Distributions","volume":"42","author":"Rife","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Arana, G.D., Joerger, M., and Spenko, M. (2017). Minimizing Integrity Risk via Landmark Selection in Mobile Robot Localization. IEEE Trans. Robot., in press."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2017.2739924","article-title":"An INS Monitor to Detect GNSS Spoofers Capable of Tracking Vehicle Position","volume":"54","author":"Tanil","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tanil, C., Joerger, M., Khanafseh, S., and Pervan, B. (2018, January 24\u201328). A Sequential Integrity Monitoring for Kalman Filter Innovations-Based Detectors. Proceedings of the ION GNSS+, Miami, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.33012\/2018.15975"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1002\/navi.71","article-title":"Solution Separation Versus Residual-Based RAIM","volume":"64","author":"Joerger","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Inst. Navig."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.2514\/1.59480","article-title":"Kalman Filter-Based Integrity Monitoring Against Sensor Faults","volume":"36","author":"Joerger","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Guid. Control Dyn."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Pullen, S., Lee, J., Luo, M., Pervan, B., Chan, F.-C., and Gratton, L. (2001, January 11\u201314). Ephemeris Protection Level Equations and Monitor Algorithms for GBAS. Proceedings of the ION GPS 2001, Salt Lake City, UT, USA."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Pullen, S. (2011, January 19\u201323). Augmented GNSS: Fundamentals and Keys to Integrity and Continuity. Proceedings of the ION GNSS 2011, Portland, OR, USA."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"021004","DOI":"10.1115\/1.3072122","article-title":"Measurement-Level Integration of Carrier-Phase GPS and Laser-Scanner for Outdoor Ground Vehicle Navigation","volume":"131","author":"Joerger","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Dyn. Syst. Meas. Control"},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Joerger, M. (2009). Carrier Phase GPS Augmentation Using Laser Scanners and Using Low Earth Orbiting Satellites. [Ph.D. Dissertation, Illinois Institute of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Ye, C., and Borenstein, J. (2002, January 11\u201315). Characterization of a 2-D Laser Scanner for Mobile Robot Obstacle Negotiation. Proceedings of the 2002 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (Cat. No.02CH37292), Washington, DC, USA."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/8\/2740\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:19:51Z","timestamp":1760195991000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/8\/2740"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,20]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s18082740"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18082740","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,20]]}}}