{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T04:03:20Z","timestamp":1760241800868,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,31]],"date-time":"2018-08-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1535673600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Autonomous vehicular clouds, as the combination of cloud computing and conventional vehicular ad hoc networks, will provide abundant resources and services by sharing under-utilized resources of future high-end vehicles such as computing power, storage and internet connectivity. Autonomous vehicular clouds will have significant impact if widely implemented in the intelligent transportation system. However, security and privacy issues are still big challenges in autonomous vehicular clouds. In this paper, after analyzing the particularity of autonomous vehicular clouds, we implement a two-layered architecture, in which vehicles are self-organized without the help of roadside units. Then based on the architecture, we put forward an effective key management protocol to distribute a group key efficiently and also provide the authentication and confidentiality that lots of current secure schemes ignore. In addition, according to the different scenarios and security levels we categorize the way of message transmitting into three kinds. At last, with performance evaluations, the proposed protocol can perform more efficiently than other well-known available schemes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18092896","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,31]],"date-time":"2018-08-31T10:57:52Z","timestamp":1535713072000},"page":"2896","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["An Effective and Secure Key Management Protocol for Message Delivery in Autonomous Vehicular Clouds"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Congcong","family":"Li","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Traffic and Transportation, Beijing Jiaotong University, Haidian District, Beijing 100000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shouwen","family":"Ji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Traffic and Transportation, Beijing Jiaotong University, Haidian District, Beijing 100000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xi","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Traffic and Transportation, Beijing Jiaotong University, Haidian District, Beijing 100000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Haiping","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Research and Development, Beijing Zhonghaiwenda Information Technology Company, Haidian District, Beijing 100000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Dongfeng","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electronic Transaction Cryptographic Application Group, State Cryptography Administration Office of Security Commercial Code Administration, Fengtai District, Beijing 100000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Huiyong","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Traffic and Transportation, Beijing Jiaotong University, Haidian District, Beijing 100000, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1109\/MNET.2013.6616115","article-title":"Toward cloud-based vehicular networks with efficient resource management","volume":"27","author":"Yu","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Netw."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kong, Q., Lu, R., Zhu, H., Alamer, A., and Lin, X. (2017, January 4\u20138). A Secure and Privacy-Preserving Incentive Framework for Vehicular Cloud on the Road. Proceedings of the Global Communications Conference, Singapore.","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOCOM.2016.7841542"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grover, J., and Vinod, P. (2018). Challenges and Opportunities in Vehicular Cloud Computing. Vehicular Cloud Computing for Traffic Management and System, IGI Global.","DOI":"10.4018\/978-1-5225-3981-0"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2","DOI":"10.4108\/icst.trans.mca.2011.e2","article-title":"Towards autonomous vehicular clouds","volume":"11","author":"Olariu","year":"2011","journal-title":"EAI Endorsed Trans. Mob. Commun. Appl."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alamer, A., Deng, Y., and Lin, X. (2017, January 11\u201313). Secure and privacy-preserving task announcement in vehicular cloud. Proceedings of the International Conference on Wireless Communications and Signal Processing, Nanjing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/WCSP.2017.8170986"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Lim, K. (2016). Secure and Authenticated Message Dissemination in Vehicular ad hoc Networks and an Incentive-Based Architecture for Vehicular Cloud. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Kentucky]."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2012.2211870","article-title":"Security challenges in vehicular cloud computing","volume":"14","author":"Yan","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"4848","article-title":"A Survey on Security challenges in Vehicular cloud computing","volume":"4","author":"Rajeshwari","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Res. Educ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahmad, I., Noor, R.M., Ali, I., and Qureshi, M.A. (2017, January 17\u201319). The Role of Vehicular Cloud Computing in Road Traffic Management: A Survey. Proceedings of the International Conference on Future Intelligent Vehicular Technologies, Islamabad, Pakistan.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-51207-5_12"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2013.08.004","article-title":"A survey on vehicular cloud computing","volume":"40","author":"Sookhak","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2014.6871677","article-title":"Context-aware vehicular cyber-physical systems with cloud support: Architecture, challenges, and solutions","volume":"52","author":"Wan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Commun. Mag. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chi, W.D., Ru, L.I., and Fan, P.F. (2016, January 14\u201315). Research on the Checkpoint Server Selection Strategy Based on the Mobile Prediction in Autonomous Vehicular Cloud. Proceedings of the International Conference on Service Science, Technology and Engineering, Suzhou, China.","DOI":"10.12783\/dtetr\/sste2016\/6510"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hussain, R., Son, J., Eun, H., Kim, S., and Oh, H. (2013, January 2\u20135). Rethinking Vehicular Communications: Merging VANET with cloud computing. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Cloud Computing Technology and Science, Bristol, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/CloudCom.2012.6427481"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Riyami, S.S., and Paterson, K.G. (2003). Certificateless Public Key Cryptography, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-40061-5_29"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1109\/TIT.1976.1055638","article-title":"New directions in cryptography","volume":"22","author":"Diffie","year":"1976","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Theor."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aloqaily, M., Kantarci, B., and Mouftah, H.T. (2015, January 4\u20137). A Generalized Framework for Quality of Experience (QoE)-Based Provisioning in a Vehicular Cloud. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Ubiquitous Wireless Broadband, Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICUWB.2015.7324403"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aloqaily, M., Ridhawi, I.A., Kantraci, B., and Mouftah, H.T. (2017, January 8\u201313). Vehicle as a resource for continuous service availability in smart cities. Proceedings of the IEEE the 28th Annual International Symposium on Personal, Indoor, and Mobile Radio Communications, Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/PIMRC.2017.8292752"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2016.04.024","article-title":"On-siteDriverID: A Secure Authentication Scheme based on Spanish eID Cards for Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks","volume":"64","author":"Toral","year":"2016","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, L., Liu, G., and Sun, L. (2017). A Secure and Privacy-Preserving Navigation Scheme Using Spatial Crowdsourcing in Fog-Based VANETs. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17040668"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Otoum, S., Kantarci, B., and Mouftah, H. (2018, January 20\u201324). Adaptively Supervised and Intrusion-Aware Data Aggregation for Wireless Sensor Clusters in Critical Infrastructures. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), Kansas City, MO, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2018.8422401"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4987","DOI":"10.1109\/T-WC.2008.070773","article-title":"TSVC: Timed efficient and secure vehicular communications with privacy preserving","volume":"7","author":"Lin","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2895","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ins.2010.04.002","article-title":"A pairing-free identity-based authenticated key agreement protocol with minimal message exchanges","volume":"180","author":"Cao","year":"2010","journal-title":"Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2010.05.005","article-title":"SPECS: Secure and privacy enhancing communications schemes for VANETs","volume":"9","author":"Chim","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1860","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2013.2277471","article-title":"b-SPECS+: Batch verification for secure pseudonymous authentication in VANET","volume":"8","author":"Horng","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensics Secur."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1109\/JSYST.2014.2322973","article-title":"A privacy-aware authentication scheme for distributed mobile cloud computing services","volume":"9","author":"Tsai","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Syst. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, Y., Sur, C., Noh, S.W., and Rhee, K.H. (2018). Self-Controllable Secure Location Sharing for Trajectory-Based Message Delivery on Cloud-Assisted VANETs. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18072112"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2681","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2015.2473820","article-title":"An efficient identity-based conditional privacy-preserving authentication scheme for vehicular ad hoc networks","volume":"10","author":"He","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensics Secur."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1319","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2015.2502322","article-title":"An efficient conditional privacy-preserving authentication scheme for vehicular sensor networks without pairings","volume":"17","author":"Lo","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ming, Y., and Shen, X. (2018). PCPA: A Practical Certificateless Conditional Privacy Preserving Authentication Scheme for Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18051573"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"30","article-title":"An efficient protocol for authenticated and secure message delivery in vehicular ad hoc networks","volume":"4","author":"Lim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Veh. Commun."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2015.2492981","article-title":"Dual Authentication and Key Management Techniques for Secure Data Transmission in Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks","volume":"17","author":"Vijayakumar","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Trans. Syst."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, X., Huang, C.T., and Matthews, M. (2007, January 23\u201323). In Chinese remainder theorem based group key management. Proceedings of the Southeast Regional Conference, Winston-Salem, NC, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1233341.1233389"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"967","DOI":"10.1080\/02533839.2009.9671584","article-title":"Key Tree and Chinese Remainder Theorem Based Group Key Distribution Scheme","volume":"32","author":"Zhou","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Chin. Inst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2014.2375555","article-title":"Effective Key Management in Dynamic Wireless Sensor Networks","volume":"10","author":"Seo","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensics Secur."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lim, K., Abumuhfouz, I.M., and Manivannan, D. (July, January 29). Secure Incentive-Based Architecture for Vehicular Cloud. Proceedings of the International Conference Ad-hoc, Mobile, and Wireless Networks (ADHOC-NOW 2015), Athens, Greece.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-19662-6_25"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Sahoo, R.R., Panda, R., Behera, D.K., and Naskar, M.K. (February, January 30). A trust based clustering with Ant Colony Routing in VANET. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Computing Communication & Networking Technologies, Maui, HI, USA."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2017.1600863","article-title":"Collaborative Mobile Edge Computing in 5G Networks: New Paradigms, Scenarios, and Challenges","volume":"55","author":"Tran","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3446","DOI":"10.1002\/ett.3446","article-title":"A collaborative mobile edge computing and user solution for service composition in 5G systems","volume":"1","author":"Ridhawi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trans. Emerg. Telecommun. Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ridhawi, I.A., Samaan, N., and Karmouch, A. (2012, January 16\u201320). Simulator-Assisted Joint Service-Level-Agreement and Vertical-Handover Adaptation for Profit Maximization. Proceedings of the 12th International Symposium on Applications and the Internet, Izmir, Turkey.","DOI":"10.1109\/SAINT.2012.19"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, C., Zhang, X., Wang, H., and Li, D. (2018). An Enhanced Secure Identity-Based Certificateless Public Key Authentication Scheme for Vehicular Sensor Networks. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18010194"},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"224","article-title":"Chinese Remainder Theorem","volume":"70","author":"Ding","year":"2005","journal-title":"World Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Otoum, S., Kantarci, B., and Mouftah, H.T. (2017, January 21\u201325). In Hierarchical trust-based black-hole detection in WSN-based smart grid monitoring. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Communications, Paris, France.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICC.2017.7997099"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/9\/2896\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:22:30Z","timestamp":1760196150000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/9\/2896"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,31]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s18092896"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18092896","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,31]]}}}