{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,28]],"date-time":"2026-06-28T06:16:07Z","timestamp":1782627367750,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,21]],"date-time":"2018-09-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1537488000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The Thailand Research Fund (TRF)","award":["MRG6080151"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MRG6080151"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Hybrid optical gas sensors, based on different organic and inorganic materials, are proposed in this paper, with the aim of using them as optical artificial nose systems. Three types of organic and inorganic dyes, namely zinc-porphyrin, manganese-porphyrin, and zinc-phthalocyanine, were used as gas sensing materials to fabricate a thin-film coating on glass substrates. The performance of the gas sensor was enhanced by a thermal treatment process. The optical absorption spectra and morphological structure of the sensing films were confirmed by UV-Vis spectrophotometer and atomic force microscope, respectively. The optical gas sensors were tested with various volatile compounds, such as acetic acid, acetone, ammonia, ethanol, ethyl acetate, and formaldehyde, which are commonly found to be released during the growth of bacteria. These sensors were used to detect and discriminate between the bacterial odors of three pathogenic species (Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) grown in Luria-Bertani medium. Based on a pattern recognition (PARC) technique, we showed that the proposed hybrid optical gas sensors can discriminate among the three pathogenic bacterial odors and that the volatile organic compound (VOC) odor pattern of each bacterium was dependent on the phase of bacterial growth.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18103189","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,21]],"date-time":"2018-09-21T11:00:25Z","timestamp":1537527625000},"page":"3189","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["Development of Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Optical Gas Sensors for the Non-Invasive Monitoring of Pathogenic Bacteria"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Sumana","family":"Kladsomboon","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Radiological Technology, Faculty of Medical Technology, Mahidol University, Phutthamonthon, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chadinee","family":"Thippakorn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Research and Innovation, Faculty of Medical Technology, Mahidol University, Phutthamonthon, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thara","family":"Seesaard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics, Faculty of Science and Technology, Kanchanaburi Rajabhat University, Kanchanaburi 71000, Thailand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1922","DOI":"10.1039\/C5AN02301G","article-title":"Lab on a chip sensor for rapid detection and antibiotic resistance determination of Staphylococcus aureus","volume":"141","author":"Abeyrathne","year":"2016","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1111\/zph.12376","article-title":"Escherichia coli isolates from commercial chicken meat and eggs cause sepsis, meningitis and urinary tract infection in rodent models of human infections","volume":"65","author":"Mellata","year":"2018","journal-title":"Zoonoses Public Health"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2014.02.009","article-title":"Clinical characteristics and outcomes of hematogenous vertebral osteomyelitis caused by gram-negative bacteria","volume":"69","author":"Park","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.micro.55.1.77","article-title":"Toxic shock syndrome and bacterial superantigens: An update","volume":"55","author":"McCormick","year":"2001","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1080\/00365540310016268","article-title":"Contact activation by pathogenic bacteria: A virulence mechanism contributing to the pathophysiology of sepsis","volume":"35","author":"Herwald","year":"2003","journal-title":"Scand. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2016.03.006","article-title":"Point-of-care and visual detection of P. aeruginosa and its toxin genes by multiple LAMP and lateral flow nucleic acid biosensor","volume":"81","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2943","DOI":"10.1039\/c3an36814a","article-title":"A method for DNA-based detection of E. coli O157: H7 in a proteinous background using piezoelectric-excited cantilever sensors","volume":"138","author":"Rijal","year":"2013","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.03644-14","article-title":"Volatile-sulfur-compound profile distinguishes Burkholderia pseudomallei from Burkholderia thailandensis","volume":"53","author":"Inglis","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boots, A.W., Smolinska, A., Van Berkel, J.J.B.N., Fijten, R.R.R., Stobberingh, E.E., Boumans, M.L.L., Moonen, E.J., Wouters, E.F.M., Dallinga, J.W., and Van Schooten, F.J. (2014). Identification of microorganisms based on headspace analysis of volatile organic compounds by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J. Breath Res., 8.","DOI":"10.1088\/1752-7155\/8\/2\/027106"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wiesner, K., Jaremek, M., Pohle, R., Von Sicard, O., and Stuetz, E. (2014). In Monitoring of bacterial growth and rapid evaluation of antibiotic susceptibility by headspace gas analysis. Procedia Eng., 332\u2013335.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2014.11.750"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6617","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-014-8111-2","article-title":"Investigation of volatile metabolites during growth of Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa by needle trap-GC-MS","volume":"406","author":"Zscheppank","year":"2014","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mimet.2010.12.001","article-title":"Multivariate analysis of bacterial volatile compound profiles for discrimination between selected species and strains in vitro","volume":"84","author":"Thorn","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Meth."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bos, L.D.J., Sterk, P.J., and Schultz, M.J. (2013). Volatile metabolites of pathogens: A systematic review. PLoS Pathog., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1003311"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1093\/chromsci\/bmt042","article-title":"Identification of volatile organic compounds produced by bacteria using HS-SPME-GC-MS","volume":"52","author":"Tait","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Chromatogr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, C., Yan, J., Duan, S., Wang, L., Jia, P., and Zhang, S. (2016). Enhancing electronic nose performance based on a novel QPSO-KELM model. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16040520"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1108\/02602280410525977","article-title":"A review of gas sensors employed in electronic nose applications","volume":"24","author":"Arshak","year":"2004","journal-title":"Sens. Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, Q., Gu, Y., and Jia, J. (2017). Classification of multiple Chinese liquors by means of a QCM-based e-nose and MDS-SVM classifier. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17020272"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9592","DOI":"10.3390\/s150409592","article-title":"Enhanced sensitivity of gas sensor based on poly (3-hexylthiophene) thin-film transistors for disease diagnosis and environment monitoring","volume":"15","author":"Cavallari","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/2193-1801-2-687","article-title":"The detection of foodborne bacteria on beef: The application of the electronic nose","volume":"2","author":"Abdallah","year":"2013","journal-title":"SpringerPlus"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Capelli, L., Taverna, G., Bellini, A., Eusebio, L., Buffi, N., Lazzeri, M., Guazzoni, G., Bozzini, G., Seveso, M., and Mandressi, A. (2016). Application and uses of electronic noses for clinical diagnosis on urine samples: A review. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16101708"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Korposh, S.O., Takahara, N., Lee, S.W., and Kunitake, T. (2007, January 2\u20135). Fabrication of optical gas sensors using porphyrin-based nano-assembled thin films: A Comparison with bulk materials. Proceedings of the 2007 7th IEEE International Conference on Nanotechnology (IEEE-NANO), Hong Kong, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/NANO.2007.4601360"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2018.01.025","article-title":"Tilapia fish microbial spoilage monitored by a single optical gas sensor","volume":"89","author":"Semeano","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1252\/kakoronbunshu.43.123","article-title":"Improvement of UV-stability of porphyrin-type humidity indicator by the addition of UV-absorbents","volume":"43","author":"Matsumoto","year":"2017","journal-title":"Kagaku Kogaku Ronbunshu"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1517","DOI":"10.1002\/pat.3826","article-title":"New fluoro triazol porphyrin-cellulose: Synthesis, characterization and antibacterial activity","volume":"27","author":"Guesmi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Polym. Adv. Technol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jorganchem.2014.12.042","article-title":"Novel phthalocyanines containing resorcinol azo dyes; Synthesis, determination of pKa values, antioxidant, antibacterial and anticancer activity","volume":"783","author":"Kantar","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Organomet. Chem."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1315","DOI":"10.1007\/s12039-012-0330-5","article-title":"Fabrication of optochemical and electrochemical sensors using thin films of porphyrin and phthalocyanine derivatives","volume":"124","author":"Kalimuthu","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Chem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8121","DOI":"10.3390\/s150408121","article-title":"Corroles-porphyrins: A teamwork for gas sensor arrays","volume":"15","author":"Capuano","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2006.07.009","article-title":"Optical sensing responses of tetraphenyl porphyrins toward alcohol vapours: A comparison between vacuum evaporated and spin-coated thin films","volume":"122","author":"Tonezzer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7416","DOI":"10.1021\/jp900335p","article-title":"Theoretical investigation on the electron transport path through the porphyrin molecules and chemisorption of CO","volume":"113","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. C"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5240","DOI":"10.1166\/jnn.2012.6225","article-title":"Hybrid optical-electrochemical electronic nose system based on Zn-porphyrin and multi-walled carbon nanotube composite","volume":"12","author":"Kladsomboon","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2012.09.053","article-title":"Inkjet-printed sol-gel films containing metal phthalocyanines\/porphyrins for opto-electronic nose applications","volume":"176","author":"Mensing","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B"},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"48","article-title":"An investigation of molecular interactions between zinc phthalocyanine thin film and various oxidizing gases for sensor applications","volume":"403\u2013408","author":"Jaisutti","year":"2012","journal-title":"Adv. Mater. Res."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2003.11.034","article-title":"Surface morphology and gas sensing characteristics of nickel phthalocyanine thin films","volume":"99","author":"Liu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optmat.2016.05.049","article-title":"Thickness and annealing effects on thermally evaporated InZnO thin films for gas sensors and blue, green and yellow emissive optical devices","volume":"58","author":"Sugumaran","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Mater."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2010.12.006","article-title":"Comparative gas sensing in copper porphyrin and copper phthalocyanine spin-coating films","volume":"152","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mseb.2011.07.015","article-title":"A colorimetric array of metalloporphyrin derivatives for the detection of volatile organic compounds","volume":"176","author":"Long","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Eng. B Solid"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zetola, N.M., Modongo, C., Mathlagela, K., Sepako, E., Matsiri, O., Tamuhla, T., Mbongwe, B., Martinelli, E., Sirugo, G., and Paolesse, R. (2016). Identification of a large pool of microorganisms with an array of porphyrin based gas sensors. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16040466"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2006.02.016","article-title":"Application of gas-sensor array technology for detection and monitoring of growth of spoilage bacteria in milk: A model study","volume":"565","author":"Haugen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/10\/3189\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:21:47Z","timestamp":1760196107000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/10\/3189"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,21]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s18103189"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18103189","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,21]]}}}