{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T16:37:18Z","timestamp":1776443838573,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,27]],"date-time":"2018-09-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1538006400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"UPM Putra Grant","award":["IPS\/2017\/9557100"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IPS\/2017\/9557100"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>As a possible implementation of a low-power wide-area network (LPWAN), Long Range (LoRa) technology is considered to be the future wireless communication standard for the Internet of Things (IoT) as it offers competitive features, such as a long communication range, low cost, and reduced power consumption, which make it an optimum alternative to the current wireless sensor networks and conventional cellular technologies. However, the limited bandwidth available for physical layer modulation in LoRa makes it unsuitable for high bit rate data transfer from devices like image sensors. In this paper, we propose a new method for mangrove forest monitoring in Malaysia, wherein we transfer image sensor data over the LoRa physical layer (PHY) in a node-to-node network model. In implementing this method, we produce a novel scheme for overcoming the bandwidth limitation of LoRa. With this scheme the images, which requires high data rate to transfer, collected by the sensor are encrypted as hexadecimal data and then split into packets for transfer via the LoRa physical layer (PHY). To assess the quality of images transferred using this scheme, we measured the packet loss rate, peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR), and structural similarity (SSIM) index of each image. These measurements verify the proposed scheme for image transmission, and support the industrial and academic trend which promotes LoRa as the future solution for IoT infrastructure.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18103257","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,28]],"date-time":"2018-09-28T02:54:54Z","timestamp":1538103294000},"page":"3257","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":74,"title":["Overcoming Limitations of LoRa Physical Layer in Image Transmission"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Akram H.","family":"Jebril","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Wireless &amp; Photonic Networks Research Center of Excellence (WiPNet), Department of Computer and Communication System Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia"},{"name":"Department of Communication Engineering, Technical College of Civil Aviation &amp; Meteorology, Esbea, Tripoli 84116, Libya"}]},{"given":"Aduwati","family":"Sali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wireless &amp; Photonic Networks Research Center of Excellence (WiPNet), Department of Computer and Communication System Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia"}]},{"given":"Alyani","family":"Ismail","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wireless &amp; Photonic Networks Research Center of Excellence (WiPNet), Department of Computer and Communication System Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia"}]},{"given":"Mohd Fadlee A.","family":"Rasid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Wireless &amp; Photonic Networks Research Center of Excellence (WiPNet), Department of Computer and Communication System Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nasri, M., Helali, A., Sghaier, H., and Maaref, H. (2010, January 23\u201325). Adaptive image transfer for wireless sensor networks (WSNs). Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Design & Technology of Integrated Systems in Nanoscale Era, Hammamet, Tunisia.","DOI":"10.1109\/DTIS.2010.5487597"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cattani, M., Boano, C., and R\u00f6mer, K. (2017). An Experimental Evaluation of the Reliability of LoRa Long-Range Low-Power Wireless Communication. J. Sens. Actuator Netw., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/jsan6020007"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"United Nations Climate Change (2018, August 02). Connected Mangroves | Malaysia. Available online: https:\/\/unfccc.int\/climate-action\/momentum-for-change\/ict-solutions\/connected-mangroves."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petajajarvi, J., Mikhaylov, K., Roivainen, A., Hanninen, T., and Pettissalo, M. (2015, January 2\u20134). On the coverage of LPWANs: range evaluation and channel attenuation model for LoRa technology. Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on ITS Telecommunications (ITST), Copenhagen, Denmark.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITST.2015.7377400"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pham, C. (2016, January 3\u20137). Low-cost, low-power and long-range image sensor for visual surveillance. Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on Experiences in the Design and Implementation of Smart Objects, New York, NY, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/2980147.2980156"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fan, C., and Ding, Q. (2018). A novel wireless visual sensor network protocol based on LoRa modulation. Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw., 14.","DOI":"10.1177\/1550147718765980"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"708","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-67380-6_67","article-title":"Transfer of Multimedia Data via LoRa","volume":"Volume 10531","author":"Galinina","year":"2017","journal-title":"Internet of Things, Smart Spaces and Next Generation Networks and Systems"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yim, D., Chung, J., Cho, Y., Song, H., Jin, D., Kim, S., Ko, S., Smith, A., and Riegsecker, A. (2018, January 12\u201314). An experimental LoRa performance evaluation in tree farm. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Sensors Applications Symposium (SAS), Seoul, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/SAS.2018.8336764"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sanchez-Iborra, R., and Cano, M.-D. (2016). State of the Art in LP-WAN Solutions for Industrial IoT Services. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16050708"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Semtech (2018, August 02). LoRa FAQs. Available online: https:\/\/docplayer.net\/9473940-Lora-faqs-www-semtech-com-1-of-4-semtech-semtech-corporation-lora-faq.html."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOM.1973.1091721","article-title":"On the Utility of Chirp Modulation for Digital Signaling","volume":"21","author":"Berni","year":"1973","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1466","DOI":"10.3390\/s16091466","article-title":"A Study of LoRa: Long Range & Low Power Networks for the Internet of Things","volume":"16","author":"Augustin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Atanasovski, V., and Leon-Garcia, A. (2015). Future Access Enablers for Ubiquitous and Intelligent Infrastructures, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-27072-2"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.5121\/ijwmn.2016.8505","article-title":"Emerging Wireless Technologies in the Internet of Things: A Comparative Study","volume":"8","author":"Elkhodr","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Wirel. Mob. Netw."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bor, M., and Roedig, U. (2017, January 5\u20137). LoRa Transmission Parameter Selection. Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Distributed Computing in Sensor Systems (DCOSS), Ottawa, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/DCOSS.2017.10"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ochoa, M.N., Guizar, A., Maman, M., and Duda, A. (2017, January 9\u201311). Evaluating LoRa energy efficiency for adaptive networks: From star to mesh topologies. Proceedings of the IEEE 13th International Conference on Wireless and Mobile Computing, Networking and Communications (WiMob), Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/WiMOB.2017.8115793"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icte.2017.03.004","article-title":"A survey on LPWA technology: LoRa and NB-IoT","volume":"3","author":"Sinha","year":"2017","journal-title":"ICT Express"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Knyazev, N.S., Chechetkin, V.A., and Letavin, D.A. (2017, January 3\u20134). Comparative analysis of standards for Low-power Wide-area Network. Proceedings of the 2017 Systems of Signal Synchronization, Generating and Processing in Telecommunications (SINKHROINFO), Kazan, Russia.","DOI":"10.1109\/SINKHROINFO.2017.7997528"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"IEEE Computer Society, LAN\/MAN Standards Committee, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, and IEEE-SA Standards Board (2012). IEEE Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area Networks. Part 15.4, Amendment 3, Part 15.4, Amendment 3, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Orfanidis, C., Feeney, L.M., Jacobsson, M., and Gunningberg, P. (2017, January 9\u201311). Investigating interference between LoRa and IEEE 802.15.4g networks. Proceedings of the IEEE 13th International Conference on Wireless and Mobile Computing, Networking and Communications (WiMob), Rome, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/WiMOB.2017.8115772"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vejlgaard, B., Lauridsen, M., Nguyen, H., Kovacs, I.Z., Mogensen, P., and Sorensen, M. (2017, January 19\u201322). Interference Impact on Coverage and Capacity for Low Power Wide Area IoT Networks. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference (WCNC), San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/WCNC.2017.7925510"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pham, C. (2016, January 14\u201315). Building Low-Cost Gateways and Devices for Open LoRa IoT Test-Beds. Proceedings of the International Conference on Testbeds and Research Infrastructures, Hangzhou, China.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-49580-4_7"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Parrish, K. (2018, August 02). Arduino vs. Raspberry Pi. Available online: https:\/\/www.digitaltrends.com\/computing\/arduino-vs-raspberry-pi\/."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"8","article-title":"Comparison of Image Quality Assessment: PSNR, HVS, SSIM, UIQI","volume":"3","author":"Soong","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Eng. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sherwin, T., Easte, M., Chen, A., Wang, K., and Dai, W. (2018). A Single RF Emitter-Based Indoor Navigation Method for Autonomous Service Robots. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18020585"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.1590\/1414-431x20154773","article-title":"Cocos nucifera (L.) (Arecaceae): A phytochemical and pharmacological review","volume":"48","author":"Lima","year":"2015","journal-title":"Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Coleman, D.D., and Westcott, D.A. (2009). CWNA Certified Wireless Network Administrator Official Study Guide Exam PW0-104, John Wiley & Sons."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/10\/3257\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:22:53Z","timestamp":1760196173000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/10\/3257"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,27]]},"references-count":27,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s18103257"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18103257","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,9,27]]}}}