{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T07:28:13Z","timestamp":1780385293670,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":131,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,12]],"date-time":"2018-10-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1539302400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002632","name":"Hallym University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["HRF-201709-009"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HRF-201709-009"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002632","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Ministry of Trade, Industry &amp; Energy (MOTIE), Korea Institute for Advancement of Technology (KIAT) through the Encouragement Program for The Industries of Economic Cooperation Region","award":["(Project No.: R0004191)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["(Project No.: R0004191)"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 71 million people were living with Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection worldwide in 2015. Each year, about 399,000 HCV-infected people succumb to cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma, and liver failure. Therefore, screening of HCV infection with simple, rapid, but highly sensitive and specific methods can help to curb the global burden on HCV healthcare. Apart from the determination of viral load\/viral clearance, the identification of specific HCV genotype is also critical for successful treatment of hepatitis C. This critical review focuses on the technologies used for the detection, discrimination, and genotyping of HCV in clinical samples. This article also focuses on advantages and disadvantages of the reported methods used for HCV detection, quantification, and genotyping.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18103423","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,12]],"date-time":"2018-10-12T10:54:03Z","timestamp":1539341643000},"page":"3423","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["HCV Detection, Discrimination, and Genotyping Technologies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Shrikant Dashrath","family":"Warkad","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Applied Chemistry and Department of Chemistry, Hallym University, Chuncheon 200-702, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5137-0584","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Satish Balasaheb","family":"Nimse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Applied Chemistry and Department of Chemistry, Hallym University, Chuncheon 200-702, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Keum-Soo","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Applied Chemistry and Department of Chemistry, Hallym University, Chuncheon 200-702, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Taisun","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Applied Chemistry and Department of Chemistry, Hallym University, Chuncheon 200-702, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S2","DOI":"10.1038\/474S2a","article-title":"Introduction: A smouldering public-health crisis","volume":"474","author":"Gravitz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"WHO (2018, September 21). Global Hepatitis Report. Available online: https:\/\/afro.who.int\/sites\/default\/files\/2017-06\/9789241565455-eng.pdf."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators (2015). Global, regional, and national age\u2013sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990\u20132013: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet, 385, 117\u2013171.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(14)61682-2"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"9270","article-title":"Epidemiology and natural history of hepatitis C virus Infection","volume":"20","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"WHO (2018, September 21). Guidelines for the Care and Treatment of Persons Diagnosed with Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Infection. Available online: http:\/\/apps.who.int\/iris\/bitstream\/handle\/10665\/273174\/9789241550345-eng.pdf?ua=1."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-0691.2010.03432.x","article-title":"Evolving epidemiology of hepatitis C virus","volume":"17","author":"Lavanchy","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/11.supp4.2","article-title":"Structure, genomic organization, replication and variability of hepatitis C virus","volume":"11","author":"Pozzetto","year":"1996","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.3892\/ijmm.2012.1209","article-title":"Comparison of three different HCV genotyping methods: Core, NS5B sequence analysis and line probe assay","volume":"31","author":"Cai","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.26744","article-title":"Expanded Classification of Hepatitis C Virus Into 7 Genotypes and 67 Subtypes: Updated Criteria and Genotype Assignment Web Resource","volume":"59","author":"Smith","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.27259","article-title":"Global Distribution and Prevalence of Hepatitis C Virus Genotypes","volume":"61","author":"Messina","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wasitthankasem, R., Vongpunsawad, S., Siripon, N., Suya, C., Chulothok, P., Chaiear, K., Rujirojindakul, P., Kanjana, S., Theamboonlers, A., and Tangkijvanich, P. (2015). Genotypic Distribution of Hepatitis C Virus in Thailand and Southeast Asia. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0126764"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"WHO (2018, September 21). Guidelines for the Screening, Care and Treatment of Persons with Chronic Hepatitis C Infection. Available online: http:\/\/www.who.int\/hepatitis\/publications\/hepatitis-c-guidelines-2016\/en\/."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Association for Study of Liver (2015). EASL Recommendations on Treatment of Hepatitis C 2015. J. Hepatol., 63, 199\u2013236.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2015.03.025"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1298","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.27880","article-title":"Direct-acting antiviral drug approvals for treatment of chronic hepatitis C virus infection: Scientific and regulatory approaches to clinical trial designs","volume":"62","author":"Mishra","year":"2015","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Association for Study of Liver (2018). EASL Recommendations on Treatment of Hepatitis C 2018. J. Hepatol., 69, 461\u2013511.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2018.03.026"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1111\/jvh.12657","article-title":"NS5A inhibitors for the treatment of hepatitis C infection","volume":"24","author":"Gitto","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Viral. Hepat."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"LaBarre, K.R., Hawkins, J., Gerlach, J., Wilmoth, A., Beddoe, J., Singleton, J., Boyle, D., and Weigl, B. (2011). A simple, inexpensive device for nucleic acid amplification without electricity-toward instrument-free molecular diagnostics in low-resource settings. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0019738"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro841","article-title":"Diagnostics for the developing world","volume":"2","author":"Mabey","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-010-3661-4","article-title":"Development and application of lateral flow test strip technology for detection of infectious agents and chemical contaminants: A review","volume":"397","author":"Ngom","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro1555","article-title":"Why do we need quality-assured diagnostic tests for sexually transmitted infections?","volume":"4","author":"Peeling","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.35.1.187-192.1997","article-title":"Comparison of plasma virus loads among individuals infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotypes 1, 2, and 3 by quantiplex HCV RNA assay versions 1 and 2, Roche Monitor assay, and an in-house limiting dilution method","volume":"35","author":"Hawkins","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.40.3.788-793.2002","article-title":"Performance of the New Bayer VERSANT HCV RNA 3.0 assay for quantitation of hepatitis C virus RNA in plasma and serum: Conversion to international units and comparison with the Roche COBAS Amplicor HCV Monitor, Version 2.0, assay","volume":"40","author":"Beld","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1754","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.03548-14","article-title":"Comparison of Abbott RealTime HCV Genotype II with Versant line probe assay 2.0 for hepatitis C virus genotyping","volume":"53","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.38.2.477-482.2000","article-title":"Simplified hepatitis C virus genotyping by heteroduplex mobility analysis","volume":"38","author":"White","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-9-242","article-title":"Molecular characterization of hepatitis c virus in multi-transfused Colombian patients","volume":"9","author":"Beltran","year":"2012","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"224","article-title":"Evaluation of performances of VERSANT HCV RNA 1.0 assay (kPCR) and Roche COBAS AmpliPrep\/COBAS TaqMan HCV test v2.0 at low level viremia","volume":"39","author":"Mazzuti","year":"2016","journal-title":"New Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2015.03.023","article-title":"Evaluation of the COBAS(\u00ae) AmpliPrep\/COBAS(\u00ae) TaqMan(\u00ae) HCV Test, v2.0 and comparison to assays used in routine clinical practice in an international multicenter clinical trial: The ExPECT study","volume":"67","author":"Kessler","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.5501\/wjv.v4.i1.25","article-title":"Current molecular methods for the detection of hepatitis C virus in high risk group population: A systematic review","volume":"4","author":"Firdaus","year":"2015","journal-title":"World J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2011.01.007","article-title":"Point-of-care nucleic acid testing for infectious diseases","volume":"29","author":"Angelika","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.2144\/99261rv01","article-title":"Quantitative RT-PCR: Pitfalls and potential","volume":"26","author":"Freeman","year":"1999","journal-title":"BioTechniques"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1006\/abio.2000.4753","article-title":"Quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction to study mRNA decay: Comparison of endpoint and real-time methods","volume":"285","author":"Schmittgen","year":"2000","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Carter, M., and Shieh, J. (2015). Guide to Research Techniques in Neuroscience, Academic Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"882","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.31.4.882-886.1993","article-title":"Detection of hepatitis C virus RNA by a combined reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction assay","volume":"31","author":"Young","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1677\/jme.0.0290023","article-title":"Quantification of mRNA using real-time reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR): Trends and problems","volume":"29","author":"Bustin","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Mol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-422X-7-117","article-title":"A novel duplex real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction assay for the detection of hepatitis C viral RNA with armored RNA as internal control","volume":"7","author":"Meng","year":"2010","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4171","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.38.11.4171-4179.2000","article-title":"Improved Version 2.0 Qualitative and Quantitative AMPLICOR Reverse Transcription-PCR Tests for Hepatitis C Virus RNA: Calibration to International Units, Enhanced Genotype Reactivity, and Performance Characteristics","volume":"38","author":"Sung","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"23","article-title":"Reverse transcriptase PCR quantitation of hepatitis C virus","volume":"13","author":"Robbins","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. Lab. Sci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nakatani, S.M., Santos, C.A., Riediger, I.N., Krieger, M.A., Duarte, C.A., Lacerda, M.A., Biondo, A.W., Carrilho, F.J., and Ono-Nita, S.K. (2010). Development of hepatitis C virus genotyping by real-time PCR based on the NS5B region. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/annotation\/33b802f2-0973-4bc8-ab13-1dbf78e3b13d"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4116","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.69.7.4116-4122.2003","article-title":"Development of Reverse Transcription (RT)-PCR and Real-Time RT-PCR Assays for Rapid Detection and Quantification of Viable Yeasts and Molds Contaminating Yogurts and Pasteurized Food Products","volume":"69","author":"Gianluca","year":"2003","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-3940(02)01423-4","article-title":"Assumption-free analysis of quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) data","volume":"339","author":"Ramakers","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shiao, Y.H. (2003). A new reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction method for accurate quantification. BMC Biotechnol., 3.","DOI":"10.1186\/1472-6750-3-22"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.2174\/138920207781386960","article-title":"Real-Time PCR: Revolutionizing detection and expression analysis of genes","volume":"8","author":"Deepak","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curr. Genom."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"285","article-title":"Nucleic acid sequence detection systems: Revolutionary automation for monitoring and reporting PCR products","volume":"6","author":"Bassam","year":"1996","journal-title":"Australas. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"1026","article-title":"Kinetic PCR analysis: Real-time monitoring of DNA amplification reactions","volume":"11","author":"Higuchi","year":"1993","journal-title":"Biotechnology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1038\/ajg.2012.248","article-title":"HCV RNA viral load assessments in the era of direct-acting antivirals","volume":"108","author":"Cobb","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3880","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00755-08","article-title":"Differences between Two Real-Time PCR-Based Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Assays (RealTime HCV and Cobas AmpliPrep\/Cobas TaqMan) and One Signal Amplification Assay (Versant HCV RNA 3.0) for RNA Detection and Quantification","volume":"46","author":"Vermehren","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cobb, B., Heilek, G., and Vilchez, R.A. (2014). Molecular diagnostics in the management of chronic hepatitis C: Key considerations in the era of new antiviral therapies. BMC Infect. Dis., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-14-S5-S8"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.01511-10","article-title":"Interpretation of Real-Time PCR Results for Hepatitis C Virus RNA When Viral Load Is Below Quantification Limits","volume":"49","author":"Laperche","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1858","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-20312-5","article-title":"Evaluation of dried blood spot samples for screening of hepatitis C and human immunodeficiency virus in a real-world setting","volume":"8","author":"Sonia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.2144\/05391RV01","article-title":"Real-time PCR for mRNA quantitation","volume":"39","author":"Wong","year":"2005","journal-title":"BioTechniques"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"970","DOI":"10.1039\/c3mb70304e","article-title":"Isothermal amplified detection of DNA and RNA","volume":"10","author":"Yan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mol. Biosyst."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3102","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.5b07338","article-title":"Reading out single-molecule digital RNA and DNA isothermal amplification in nanoliter volumes with unmodified camera phones","volume":"10","author":"Karymov","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1038\/350091a0","article-title":"Nucleic acid sequence-based amplification","volume":"350","author":"Compton","year":"1991","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3108","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.34.12.3108-3114.1996","article-title":"RNA amplification by nucleic acid sequence-based amplification with an internal standard enables reliable detection of Chlamydia trachomatis in cervical scrapings and urine samples","volume":"34","author":"Sillekens","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-0934(91)90069-C","article-title":"NASBA isothermal enzymatic in vitro nucleic acid amplification optimized for the diagnosis of HIV-1 infection","volume":"35","author":"Kievits","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3164","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.36.11.3164-3169.1998","article-title":"Nucleic acid sequence-based amplification, a new method for analysis of spliced and unspliced epstein-barr virus latent transcripts, and its comparison with reverse transcriptase PCR","volume":"36","author":"Brink","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1385\/MB:20:2:163","article-title":"Characteristics and applications of nucleic acid sequence-based amplification (NASBA)","volume":"20","author":"Deiman","year":"2002","journal-title":"Mol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Polstra, A.M., Goudsmit, J., and Cornelissen, M. (2002). Development of real-time NASBA assays with molecular beacon detection to quantify mRNA coding for HHV-8 lytic and latent genes. BMC Infect. Dis., 2.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-2-18"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/S1386-6532(03)00091-X","article-title":"Evaluation of a new NASBA assay for the qualitative detection of hepatitis C virus based on the NucliSense Basic Kit reagents","volume":"29","author":"Guichon","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2408","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.40.7.2408-2419.2002","article-title":"Highly Sensitive Multiplex Assay for Detection of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 and Hepatitis C Virus RNA","volume":"40","author":"Giachetti","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.4103\/0974-777X.83538","article-title":"A Review of the Current Isothermal Amplification Techniques: Applications, Advantages and Disadvantages","volume":"3","author":"Karami","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Glob. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2968","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1572-0241.2001.04669.x","article-title":"Transcription-mediated amplification is more sensitive than conventional PCR-based assays for detecting residual serum HCV RNA at end of treatment","volume":"96","author":"Comanor","year":"2001","journal-title":"Am. J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.1053\/jhep.2000.17709","article-title":"Detection of residual hepatitis C virus RNA by transcription-mediated amplification in patients with complete virologic response according to polymerase chain reaction-based assays","volume":"32","author":"Sarrazin","year":"2000","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.3109\/0886022X.2010.486499","article-title":"Improved detection of hepatitis C virus infection by transcription-mediated amplification technology in dialysis population","volume":"32","author":"Rao","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ren. Fail."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcv.2004.08.011","article-title":"Comparison of transcription mediated amplification (TMA) and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) for detection of hepatitis C virus RNA in liver tissue","volume":"32","author":"Hofmann","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.leu.2402392","article-title":"Transcription-mediated amplification and hybridisation protection assay to determine BCR-ABL transcript levels in patients with chronic myeloid leukaemia","volume":"16","author":"Langabeer","year":"2002","journal-title":"Leukemia"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E63","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/28.12.e63","article-title":"Loop-mediated isothermal amplification of DNA","volume":"28","author":"Notomi","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s12275-015-4656-9","article-title":"Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP): Principle, features, and future prospects","volume":"53","author":"Notomi","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1359","DOI":"10.1111\/1541-4337.12309","article-title":"Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP): A Rapid and Sensitive Tool for Quality Assessment of Meat Products","volume":"16","author":"Kumar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.13647","article-title":"Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP): A versatile technique for detection of micro-organisms","volume":"124","author":"Wong","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.593","article-title":"Loop mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP): A new generation of innovative gene amplification technique; perspectives in clinical diagnosis of infectious diseases","volume":"18","author":"Parida","year":"2008","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1007\/s13337-012-0067-2","article-title":"Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification Assay for Rapid Detection of Hepatitis C virus","volume":"23","author":"Kargar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Indian J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2015.12.002","article-title":"A method for rapid detection and genotype identification of hepatitis C virus 1\u20136 by one-step reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification","volume":"43","author":"Nyan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1387","DOI":"10.1007\/s00705-011-1001-4","article-title":"Detection of hepatitis C virus by an improved loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay","volume":"156","author":"Yang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arch. Virol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7585","DOI":"10.1039\/C4AY00330F","article-title":"Advances in loop-mediated isothermal amplification: Integrated with several point-of-care diagnostic methods","volume":"6","author":"Gong","year":"2014","journal-title":"Anal. Methods"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1038\/898","article-title":"Mutation detection and single-molecule counting using isothermal rolling-circle amplification","volume":"19","author":"Lizardi","year":"1998","journal-title":"Nat Genet."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3324","DOI":"10.1039\/c3cs60439j","article-title":"Rolling circle amplification: A versatile tool for chemical biology, materials science and medicine","volume":"43","author":"Ali","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_78","first-page":"693","article-title":"Surface plasmon resonance technology combined with rolling circle amplification for detection of hepatitis C virus","volume":"32","author":"Ji","year":"2012","journal-title":"J Shanghai Jiaotong Univ."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"907","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2004.04.009","article-title":"Study on the mechanism of Bioelectric Recognition Assay: Evidence for immobilized cell membrane interactions with viral fragments","volume":"20","author":"Kintzios","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.3390\/jfb6020454","article-title":"Cell Surface and Membrane Engineering: Emerging Technologies and Applications","volume":"6","author":"Saeui","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Funct. Biomater."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(01)00127-0","article-title":"Bioelectric recognition assay (BERA)","volume":"16","author":"Kintzios","year":"2001","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2007.09.003","article-title":"Hybridization assay of hepatitis B virus by QCM peptide nucleic acid biosensor","volume":"23","author":"Yao","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(03)00260-4","article-title":"A novel piezoelectric quartz micro-array immunosensor based on self-assembled monolayer for determination of human chorionic gonadotropin","volume":"19","author":"Zhang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2004.01.005","article-title":"Piezoelectric biosensors for real-time monitoring of hybridization and detection of hepatitis C virus","volume":"117","author":"Yamanaka","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1366","DOI":"10.3390\/s8031366","article-title":"Assembling amperometric biosensors for clinical diagnostics","volume":"8","author":"Belluzo","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2006.01.027","article-title":"Immobilization of streptavidin in sol-gel films: Application on the diagnosis of hepatitis C virus","volume":"70","author":"Riccardi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"782","DOI":"10.1590\/S0103-50532008000400024","article-title":"Optimization of an amperometric biosensor for the detection of hepatitis C virus using fractional factorial designs","volume":"19","author":"Uliana","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Braz. Chem."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1021\/ac701613t","article-title":"Label-free DNA detection of hepatitis C virus based on modified conducting polypyrrole films at microelectrodes and atomic force microscopy tip-integrated electrodes","volume":"80","author":"Kranz","year":"2008","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.2147\/nano.2007.2.1.117","article-title":"Bioconjugated nanoparticle detection of respiratory syncytial virus infection","volume":"2","author":"Tripp","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Nanomed."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1097\/QAI.0b013e31814a554b","article-title":"Nanoparticle-Based biobarcode amplifi cation assay (BCA) for sensitive and early detection of human immunodefi ciency type 1 capsid (p24) antigen","volume":"46","author":"Tang","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1203\/PDR.0b013e3181d361c3","article-title":"DNA Diagnostics: Nanotechnology-enhanced Electrochemical Detection of Nucleic Acids","volume":"67","author":"Wei","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pediatr Res."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.2217\/17435889.2.5.681","article-title":"Gold nanoparticles: Interesting optical properties and recent applications in cancer diagnostics and therapy","volume":"2","author":"Huang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nanomedicine"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mimet.2009.06.009","article-title":"Direct detection of unamplified DNA from pathogenic mycobacteria using DNA-derivatized gold nanoparticles","volume":"78","author":"Liandris","year":"2009","journal-title":"Microbiol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1985","DOI":"10.7150\/thno.23856","article-title":"Applications of gold nanoparticles in virus detection","volume":"8","author":"Draz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Theranostics"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1078","DOI":"10.1126\/science.277.5329.1078","article-title":"Selective colorimetric detection of polynucleotides based on the distance-dependent optical properties of gold nanoparticles","volume":"277","author":"Elghanian","year":"1997","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1586\/14737159.2015.1077704","article-title":"Gold nanoprobe-based non-crosslinking hybridization for molecular diagnostics","volume":"15","author":"Larguinho","year":"2015","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Mol. Diagn."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8102","DOI":"10.1021\/ja034876s","article-title":"Rapid Aggregation of gold nanoparticles induced by non-cross-linking DNA hybridization","volume":"125","author":"Sato","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.10379","article-title":"Visual gene diagnosis of HBV and HCV based on nanoparticle probe amplification and silver staining enhancement","volume":"70","author":"Wang","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiochem.2010.07.001","article-title":"Direct detection of unamplified hepatitis C virus RNA using unmodified gold nanoparticles","volume":"43","author":"Shawky","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2016.11.001","article-title":"Gold aggregating gold: A novel nanoparticle biosensor approach for the direct quantification of hepatitis C virus RNA in clinical samples","volume":"92","author":"Shawky","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7877","DOI":"10.1039\/c2cc33635a","article-title":"Catalytic signal amplification of gold nanoparticles combining with conformation-switched hairpin DNA probe for hepatitis C virus quantification","volume":"48","author":"Li","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738","DOI":"10.1039\/b707025j","article-title":"Electrical detection of hepatitis C virus RNA on single wall carbon nanotube-field effect transistors","volume":"132","author":"Dastagir","year":"2007","journal-title":"Analyst"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"014115","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4940887","article-title":"A microfluidic electrochemical biosensor based on multiwall carbon nanotube\/ferrocene for genomic DNA detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in clinical isolates","volume":"10","author":"Zribi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomicrofluidics"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15479","DOI":"10.1039\/C6NR04289A","article-title":"Large area graphene nanomesh: An artificial platform for edge-electrochemical biosensing at the sub-attomolar level","volume":"8","author":"Zribi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8241","DOI":"10.1039\/c3cc43368d","article-title":"Deoxyribozyme-loaded nano-graphene oxide for simultaneous sensing and silencing of the hepatitis C virus gene in liver cells","volume":"49","author":"Kim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-2423(08)60209-7","article-title":"Branched DNA signal amplification for direct quantitation of nucleic acid sequences in clinical specimens","volume":"33","author":"Nolte","year":"1999","journal-title":"Adv. Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1309\/90BU6KDXANFLN4RJ","article-title":"Branched DNA Technology in Molecular Diagnostics","volume":"126","author":"Tsongalis","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.510290237","article-title":"Comparative evaluation of Hepatitis C virus RNA quantitation by branched DNA, NASBA, and monitor assays","volume":"29","author":"Lunel","year":"1999","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_109","unstructured":"Pieretti, M. (2010). Molecular Diagnostics: Techniques and Applications for the Clinical Laboratory, Academic Press. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.44.3.729-737.2006","article-title":"Comparison of conventional PCR with real-time PCR and branched DNA-based assays for hepatitis C virus RNA quantification and clinical significance for genotypes 1 to 5","volume":"44","author":"Sarrazin","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1093","DOI":"10.1099\/0022-1317-74-6-1093","article-title":"Typing of hepatitis C virus isolates and characterization of new subtypes using a line probe assay","volume":"74","author":"Stuyver","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Gen. Virol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1901","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.02390-07","article-title":"Evaluation of Versant Hepatitis C Virus Genotype Assay (LiPA) 2.0","volume":"46","author":"Verbeeck","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3685","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00882-14","article-title":"Performance Comparison of the Versant HCV Genotype 2.0 Assay (LiPA) and the Abbott Realtime HCV Genotype II Assay for Detecting Hepatitis C Virus Genotype 6","volume":"52","author":"Yang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chueca, N., Rivadulla, I., Lovatti, R., Reina, G., Blanco, A., Fernandez-Caballero, J.A., Carde\u00f1oso, L., Rodriguez-Granjer, J., Fernandez-Alonso, M., and Aguilera, A. (2016). Using NS5B sequencing for hepatitis C virus genotyping reveals discordances with commercial platforms. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0153754"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2016.10.009","article-title":"6 HCV genotyping 9G test and its comparison with VERSANT HCV genotype 2.0 assay (LiPA) for the hepatitis C virus genotyping","volume":"239","author":"Chantratita","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2661","DOI":"10.1039\/c3cc39231g","article-title":"New platform for convenient genotyping system","volume":"49","author":"Song","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12444","DOI":"10.1039\/c1cc15137a","article-title":"Generalized probe selection method for DNA Chips","volume":"47","author":"Nimse","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jviromet.2017.04.017","article-title":"6 HCV Genotyping 9G test for HCV 1a, 1b, 2, 3, 4 and 6 (6a, 6f, 6i and 6n) with high accuracy","volume":"246","author":"Chantratita","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Virol. Methods."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1309\/RBAAC0HJFWRJB1HD","article-title":"Evaluation of a new-generation line-probe assay that detects 5\u2032 untranslated and core regions to genotype and subtype hepatitis C virus","volume":"128","author":"Nadarajah","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-018-1017-4","article-title":"Performance of 6 HCV genotyping 9G test for HCV genotyping in clinical samples","volume":"15","author":"Warkad","year":"2018","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1002\/iub.469","article-title":"Diagnosis of hepatitis C virus infection by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and reverse transcriptase-nested polymerase chain reaction: A comparative evaluation","volume":"63","author":"Swellam","year":"2011","journal-title":"IUBMB Life"},{"key":"ref_122","first-page":"47","article-title":"Molecular beacon probes\u2013base multiplex NASBA Real-time for detection of HIV-1 and HCV","volume":"4","author":"Paryan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Iran J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Walker, J.M., and Repley, R. (2005). Medical Biomethods Handbook, Humana press, Inc.","DOI":"10.1385\/1592598706"},{"key":"ref_124","first-page":"083","article-title":"Drawback of loop-mediated isothermal amplification","volume":"2","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Afr. J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gu, L., Yan, W., Liu, L., Wang, S., Zhang, X., and Lyu, M. (2018). Research Progress on Rolling Circle Amplification (RCA)-Based Biomedical Sensing. Pharmaceuticals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ph11020035"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3325","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-009-0094-3","article-title":"Isothermal DNA amplification in vitro: The helicase-dependent amplification system","volume":"66","author":"Jeong","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"496","DOI":"10.20964\/2017.01.44","article-title":"The Piezoelectric Biosensors: Principles and Applications, a Review","volume":"12","author":"Pohanka","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Electrochem. Sci."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.3390\/s140100144","article-title":"High-temperature piezoelectric sensing","volume":"14","author":"Jiang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pmatsci.2017.04.006","article-title":"Advances in piezoelectric thin films for acoustic biosensors, acoustofluidics and lab-on-chip applications","volume":"89","author":"Fu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Prog. Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alkire, R.C., Kolb, D.M., and Lipkowski, J. (2011). Amperometric Biosensors. Advances in Electrochemical Science and Engineering, WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.","DOI":"10.1002\/9783527644117"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12137","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.analchem.7b02769","article-title":"Integrated Graphene Oxide Purification-Lateral Flow Test Strips (iGOP-LFTS) for Direct Detection of PCR Products with Enhanced Sensitivity and Specificity","volume":"89","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/10\/3423\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:25:14Z","timestamp":1760196314000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/10\/3423"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,12]]},"references-count":131,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,10]]}},"alternative-id":["s18103423"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18103423","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,10,12]]}}}