{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T05:11:29Z","timestamp":1780636289512,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":57,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,3]],"date-time":"2018-11-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1541203200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) can be used to induce neural plasticity in the human nervous system by pairing motor cortical activity with relevant afferent feedback, which can be used in neurorehabilitation. The aim of this study was to identify the optimal type or combination of afferent feedback modalities to increase cortical excitability in a BCI training intervention. In three experimental sessions, 12 healthy participants imagined a dorsiflexion that was decoded by a BCI which activated relevant afferent feedback: (1) electrical nerve stimulation (ES) (peroneal nerve\u2014innervating tibialis anterior), (2) passive movement (PM) of the ankle joint, or (3) combined electrical stimulation and passive movement (Comb). The cortical excitability was assessed with transcranial magnetic stimulation determining motor evoked potentials (MEPs) in tibialis anterior before, immediately after and 30 min after the BCI training. Linear mixed regression models were used to assess the changes in MEPs. The three interventions led to a significant (p &lt; 0.05) increase in MEP amplitudes immediately and 30 min after the training. The effect sizes of Comb paradigm were larger than ES and PM, although, these differences were not statistically significant (p &gt; 0.05). These results indicate that the timing of movement imagery and afferent feedback is the main determinant of induced cortical plasticity whereas the specific type of feedback has a moderate impact. These findings can be important for the translation of such a BCI protocol to the clinical practice where by combining the BCI with the already available equipment cortical plasticity can be effectively induced. The findings in the current study need to be validated in stroke populations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18113761","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,5]],"date-time":"2018-11-05T10:43:45Z","timestamp":1541414625000},"page":"3761","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["Investigation of Optimal Afferent Feedback Modality for Inducing Neural Plasticity with A Self-Paced Brain-Computer Interface"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7729-4359","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mads","family":"Jochumsen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"SMI, Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg 9220, Denmark"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sylvain","family":"Cremoux","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAMIH, UMR CNRS 8201, Universit\u00e9 Polytechnique des Hauts de France, Valenciennes 59313, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4601-2341","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lucien","family":"Robinault","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAMIH, UMR CNRS 8201, Universit\u00e9 Polytechnique des Hauts de France, Valenciennes 59313, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jimmy","family":"Lauber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAMIH, UMR CNRS 8201, Universit\u00e9 Polytechnique des Hauts de France, Valenciennes 59313, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5324-5488","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan Carlos","family":"Arceo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"LAMIH, UMR CNRS 8201, Universit\u00e9 Polytechnique des Hauts de France, Valenciennes 59313, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2849-874X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad Samran","family":"Navid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mech-Sense, Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Aalborg University Hospital, Aalborg 9000, Denmark"},{"name":"New Zealand College of Chiropractic, Auckland 1060, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rasmus Wiberg","family":"Nedergaard","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mech-Sense, Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Aalborg University Hospital, Aalborg 9000, Denmark"},{"name":"New Zealand College of Chiropractic, Auckland 1060, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1109-5493","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Usman","family":"Rashid","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Health and Rehabilitation Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 0627, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7182-2085","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Heidi","family":"Haavik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"New Zealand College of Chiropractic, Auckland 1060, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8752-7224","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Imran Khan","family":"Niazi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SMI, Department of Health Science and Technology, Aalborg University, Aalborg 9220, Denmark"},{"name":"New Zealand College of Chiropractic, Auckland 1060, New Zealand"},{"name":"Health and Rehabilitation Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland 0627, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.5626\/JCSE.2013.7.2.139","article-title":"Brain-Computer Interface in Stroke Rehabilitation","volume":"7","author":"Ang","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Comput. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.3389\/fneng.2014.00030","article-title":"Brain-computer interface-based robotic end effector system for wrist and hand rehabilitation: Results of a three-armed randomized controlled trial for chronic stroke","volume":"7","author":"Ang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Neuroeng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1177\/1550059414522229","article-title":"A Randomized Controlled Trial of EEG-Based Motor Imagery Brain-Computer Interface Robotic Rehabilitation for Stroke","volume":"46","author":"Ang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. EEG Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1410","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00918.2015","article-title":"Efficient neuroplasticity induction in chronic stroke patients by an associative brain-computer interface","volume":"115","author":"Jiang","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2017.00400","article-title":"Post-stroke Rehabilitation Training with a Motor-Imagery-Based Brain-Computer Interface (BCI)-Controlled Hand Exoskeleton: A Randomized Controlled Multicenter Trial","volume":"11","author":"Frolov","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Pichiorri, F., Morone, G., Pisotta, I., Petti, M., Molinari, M., Astolfi, L., Cincotti, F., and Mattia, D. (2013, January 3\u20137). BCI for Stroke Rehabilitation: A Randomized Controlled Trial of Efficacy. Proceedings of the Fifth International Brain-Computer Interface Meeting, Pacific Grove, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"733","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1993.70.2.733","article-title":"Projection from the sensory to the motor cortex is important in learning motor skills in the monkey","volume":"70","author":"Pavlides","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1097\/01.wco.0000200544.29915.cc","article-title":"Motor learning: Its relevance to stroke recovery and neurorehabilitation","volume":"19","author":"Krakauer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1995.74.3.1037","article-title":"Modulation of muscle responses evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation during the acquisition of new fine motor skills","volume":"74","author":"Nguyet","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1669","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2011.222851","article-title":"Precise temporal association between cortical potentials evoked by motor imagination and afference induces cortical plasticity","volume":"590","author":"Kristensen","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1109\/TNSRE.2012.2194309","article-title":"Peripheral Electrical Stimulation Triggered by Self-Paced Detection of Motor Intention Enhances Motor Evoked Potentials","volume":"20","author":"Niazi","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2092","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2014.2313867","article-title":"A Closed-Loop Brain\u2013Computer Interface Triggering an Active Ankle\u2013Foot Orthosis for Inducing Cortical Neural Plasticity","volume":"61","author":"Xu","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/123.3.572","article-title":"Induction of plasticity in the human motor cortex by paired associative stimulation","volume":"123","author":"Stefan","year":"2000","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.2340\/16501977-0020","article-title":"Motor imagery and stroke rehabilitation: A critical discussion","volume":"39","author":"Mulder","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Rehabil. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"066009","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/8\/6\/066009","article-title":"Detection of movement intention from single-trial movement-related cortical potentials","volume":"8","author":"Niazi","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2013.2294203","article-title":"Enhanced Low-Latency Detection of Motor Intention From EEG for Closed-Loop Brain-Computer Interface Applications","volume":"61","author":"Xu","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"056015","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/10\/5\/056015","article-title":"Detection and classification of movement-related cortical potentials associated with task force and speed","volume":"10","author":"Jochumsen","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.3389\/fneng.2012.00013","article-title":"Detection of self-paced reaching movement intention from EEG signals","volume":"5","author":"Lew","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Neuroeng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ofner, P., Schwarz, A., Pereira, J., and M\u00fcller-Putz, G.R. (2017). Upper limb movements can be decoded from the time-domain of low-frequency EEG. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0182578"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2015.01.058","article-title":"Oscillatory entrainment of the motor cortical network during motor imagery is modulated by the feedback modality","volume":"111","author":"Gharabaghi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"858015","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/858015","article-title":"Comparison of Features for Movement Prediction from Single-Trial Movement-Related Cortical Potentials in Healthy Subjects and Stroke Patients","volume":"2015","author":"Kamavuako","year":"2015","journal-title":"Comput. Intell. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"056013","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/12\/5\/056013","article-title":"Detecting and classifying movement-related cortical potentials associated with hand movements in healthy subjects and stroke patients from single-electrode, single-trial EEG","volume":"12","author":"Jochumsen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2017.00356","article-title":"Detection of Movement Related Cortical Potentials from EEG Using Constrained ICA for Brain-Computer Interface Applications","volume":"11","author":"Karimi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jin, Z., Zhou, G., Gao, D., and Zhang, Y. (2018). EEG classification using sparse Bayesian extreme learning machine for brain\u2013computer interface. Neural Comput. Appl., 1\u20139.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00521-018-3735-3"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"876","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2014.2369483","article-title":"A Novel EOG\/EEG Hybrid Human\u2013Machine Interface Adopting Eye Movements and ERPs: Application to Robot Control","volume":"62","author":"Ma","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Nam, C.S., Zhou, G., Jin, J., Wang, X., and Cichocki, A. (2018). Temporally Constrained Sparse Group Spatial Patterns for Motor Imagery BCI. IEEE Trans. Cybern., 1\u201311."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2256","DOI":"10.1109\/TNNLS.2015.2476656","article-title":"Sparse Bayesian Classification of EEG for Brain\u2013Computer Interface","volume":"27","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Netw. Learn. Syst."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.01103.2010","article-title":"Motor unit recruitment when neuromuscular electrical stimulation is applied over a nerve trunk compared with a muscle belly: Triceps surae","volume":"110","author":"Bergquist","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"056009","DOI":"10.1088\/1741-2560\/11\/5\/056009","article-title":"Detection of the onset of upper-limb movements based on the combined analysis of changes in the sensorimotor rhythms and slow cortical potentials","volume":"11","author":"Serrano","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neural Eng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bspc.2017.11.012","article-title":"Effect of subject training on a movement-related cortical potential-based brain-computer interface","volume":"41","author":"Jochumsen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Signal Process. Control"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2018.04.005","article-title":"Sensory threshold neuromuscular electrical stimulation fosters motor imagery performance","volume":"176","author":"Corbet","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1097\/NPT.0b013e3181c1fc0b","article-title":"Feasibility of a New Application of Noninvasive Brain Computer Interface (BCI): A Case Study of Training for Recovery of Volitional Motor Control After Stroke","volume":"33","author":"Daly","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"482","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2016.00482","article-title":"Pairing Voluntary Movement and Muscle-Located Electrical Stimulation Increases Cortical Excitability","volume":"10","author":"Jochumsen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2017.08.025","article-title":"The effect of type of afferent feedback timed with motor imagery on the induction of cortical plasticity","volume":"1674","author":"Voigt","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-004-2153-1","article-title":"Motor cortex excitability following repetitive electrical stimulation of the common peroneal nerve depends on the voluntary drive","volume":"162","author":"Khaslavskaia","year":"2005","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-008-1495-5","article-title":"Cortical excitability changes following grasping exercise augmented with electrical stimulation","volume":"191","author":"Barsi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Exp. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1097\/WNP.0b013e3182570f17","article-title":"Short-term Effects of Electrical Stimulation and Voluntary Activity on Corticomotor Excitability in Healthy Individuals and People With Stroke","volume":"29","author":"Taylor","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-11-94","article-title":"Motor imagery and electrical stimulation reproduce corticospinal excitability at levels similar to voluntary muscle contraction","volume":"11","author":"Kaneko","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2008","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2009.08.016","article-title":"Safety of TMS Consensus Group Safety, ethical considerations, and application guidelines for the use of transcranial magnetic stimulation in clinical practice and research","volume":"120","author":"Rossi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2303","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-015-3210-0","article-title":"Enhanced precision of ankle torque measure with an open-unit dynamometer mounted with a 3D force-torque sensor","volume":"115","author":"Toumi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arceo, J.C., Lauber, J., Robinault, L., Paganelli, S., Jochumsen, M., Niazi, I.K., Simoneau, E., and Cremoux, S. (2018, January 16\u201320). Modeling and Control of Rehabilitation Robotic Device: motoBOTTE. Proceedings of the International Conference on Neurorehabilitation, Pisa, Italy.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-01845-0_110"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Arceo, J.C., Lauber, J., Simoneau, E., and Cremoux, S. (2018, January 1\u20135). Nonlinear controller design for robotic assistive therapy. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE\/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, Madrid, Spain."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1002\/bimj.201500233","article-title":"Blinded versus unblinded estimation of a correlation coefficient to inform interim design adaptations","volume":"59","author":"Kunz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biom\u3002 J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bates, D., M\u00e4chler, M., Bolker, B., and Walker, S. (2014). Fitting Linear Mixed-Effects Models using lme4. J. Stat. Softw.","DOI":"10.18637\/jss.v067.i01"},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Jaeger, B.C. (2018, October 20). r2glmm: Computes R Squared for Mixed (Multilevel) Models. Available online: https:\/\/CRAN.R-project.org\/package=r2glmm."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conctc.2018.03.008","article-title":"Different ways to estimate treatment effects in randomised controlled trials","volume":"10","author":"Twisk","year":"2018","journal-title":"Contemp. Clin. Trials Commun."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2291","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2010.190314","article-title":"Determinants of the induction of cortical plasticity by non-invasive brain stimulation in healthy subjects","volume":"588","author":"Ridding","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"817","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7793.2000.00817.x","article-title":"Major role for sensory feedback in soleus EMG activity in the stance phase of walking in man","volume":"523","author":"Sinkjaer","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1016\/S1050-6411(02)00023-8","article-title":"Afferent feedback in the control of human gait","volume":"12","author":"Nielsen","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Electromyogr. Kinesiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"822","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-9568.2006.04605.x","article-title":"Differences between the effects of three plasticity inducing protocols on the organization of the human motor cortex","volume":"23","author":"Rosenkranz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1951","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.01176.2006","article-title":"Changes in Excitability of the Cortical Projections to the Human Tibialis Anterior After Paired Associative Stimulation","volume":"97","author":"Fong","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7793.1998.267bf.x","article-title":"Evidence that a transcortical pathway contributes to stretch reflexes in the tibialis anterior muscle in man","volume":"512","author":"Petersen","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1097\/jes.0b013e3180a0321b","article-title":"Central Contributions to Contractions Evoked by Tetanic Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation","volume":"35","author":"Collins","year":"2007","journal-title":"Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2017.08.003","article-title":"The associative brain at work: Evidence from paired associative stimulation studies in humans","volume":"128","author":"Suppa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1111\/ner.12616","article-title":"Paired Associative Stimulation Delivered by Pairing Movement-Related Cortical Potentials With Peripheral Electrical Stimulation: An Investigation of the Duration of Neuromodulatory Effects","volume":"21","author":"Olsen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuromodul. Technol. Neural Interface"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2421","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-04673-z","article-title":"Brain-actuated functional electrical stimulation elicits lasting arm motor recovery after stroke","volume":"9","author":"Biasiucci","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.23879","article-title":"Brain-machine interface in chronic stroke rehabilitation: A controlled study","volume":"74","author":"Broetz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/11\/3761\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:27:50Z","timestamp":1760196470000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/11\/3761"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,3]]},"references-count":57,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s18113761"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18113761","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,3]]}}}