{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T04:06:16Z","timestamp":1760241976077,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":17,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,11]],"date-time":"2018-11-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1541894400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"MSIT (Ministry of Science and ICT), Korea, under the ITRC (Information Technology Research Center) support program","award":["IITP-2018-0-01798"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["IITP-2018-0-01798"]}]},{"name":"GRRC program of Gyeonggi province","award":["GRRC AJOU 2016B03"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GRRC AJOU 2016B03"]}]},{"name":"Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and Planning (KETEP)","award":["20164030201380"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20164030201380"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We demonstrate a photoacoustic sensor capable of measuring high-energy nanosecond optical pulses in terms of temporal width and energy fluence per pulse. This was achieved by using a hybrid combination of a carbon nanotube-polydimethylsiloxane (CNT-PDMS)-based photoacoustic transmitter (i.e., light-to-sound converter) and a piezoelectric receiver (i.e., sound detector). In this photoacoustic energy sensor (PES), input pulsed optical energy is heavily absorbed by the CNT-PDMS composite film and then efficiently converted into an ultrasonic output. The output ultrasonic pulse is then measured and analyzed to retrieve the input optical characteristics. We quantitatively compared the PES performance with that of a commercial thermal energy meter. Due to the efficient energy transduction and sensing mechanism of the hybrid structure, the minimum-measurable pulsed optical energy was significantly lowered, ~157 nJ\/cm2, corresponding to 1\/760 of the reference pyroelectric detector. Moreover, despite the limited acoustic frequency bandwidth of the piezoelectric receiver, laser pulse widths over a range of 6\u2013130 ns could be measured with a linear relationship to the ultrasound pulse width of 22\u2013153 ns. As CNT has a wide electromagnetic absorption spectrum, the proposed pulsed sensor system can be extensively applied to high-energy pulse measurement over visible through terahertz spectral ranges.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18113879","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,14]],"date-time":"2018-11-14T10:58:22Z","timestamp":1542193102000},"page":"3879","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Photoacoustic Energy Sensor for Nanosecond Optical Pulse Measurement"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0592-8866","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pil","family":"Sang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Junseok","family":"Heo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4607-207X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hui","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Korea"},{"name":"Department of Energy Systems Research, Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9295-6162","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hyoung","family":"Baac","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon 16419, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234104","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3522833","article-title":"Carbon nanotube composite optoacoustic transmitters for strong and high frequency ultrasound generation","volume":"97","author":"Baac","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, T., Baac, H.W., Li, Q., and Guo, L.J. (2018). Efficient Photoacoustic Conversion in Optical Nanomaterials and Composites. Adv. Opt. Mater.","DOI":"10.1002\/adom.201800491"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1704919","DOI":"10.1002\/adfm.201704919","article-title":"Polydimethylsiloxane composites for optical ultrasound generation and multimodality imaging","volume":"28","author":"Noimark","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Funct. Mater."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14460","DOI":"10.1039\/C5NR03769G","article-title":"Nano-structural characteristics of carbon nanotube-polymer composite films for high-amplitude optoacoustic generation","volume":"7","author":"Baac","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nanoscale"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e17103","DOI":"10.1038\/lsa.2017.103","article-title":"Through-needle all-optical ultrasound imaging in vivo: A preclinical swine study","volume":"6","author":"Finlay","year":"2017","journal-title":"Light Sci. Appl."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6803708","DOI":"10.1109\/JPHOT.2015.2496862","article-title":"All-optical ultrasound transducer using CNT-PDMS and etalon thin-film structure","volume":"7","author":"Yoo","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Photonics J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173502","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4873678","article-title":"Laser-generated ultrasound with optical fibres using functionalised carbon nanotube composite coatings","volume":"104","author":"Colchester","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1038\/srep00989","article-title":"Carbon-nanotube optoacoustic lens for focused ultrasound generation and high-precision targeted therapy","volume":"2","author":"Baac","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104102","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4943369","article-title":"Low f-number photoacoustic lens for tight ultrasonic focusing and free-field micro-cavitation in water","volume":"108","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4660","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.7b00413","article-title":"Selective photo-mechanical detachment and retrieval of divided sister cells from enclosed microfluidics for downstream analyses","volume":"11","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2550","DOI":"10.1021\/nn2050032","article-title":"Nanosecond photothermal effects in plasmonic nanostructures","volume":"6","author":"Chen","year":"2012","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Wang, L.V. (2009). Photoacoustic Imaging and Spectroscopy, CRC Press. Chapter 30."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2555","DOI":"10.1016\/S0379-6779(98)00278-1","article-title":"Optical properties of single-wall carbon nanotubes","volume":"103","author":"Kataura","year":"1999","journal-title":"Synth. Met."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1038\/nphoton.2014.96","article-title":"Efficient real-time detection of terahertz pulse radiation based on photoacoustic conversion by carbon nanotube nanocomposite","volume":"8","author":"Chen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Photonics"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"093901","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2344929","article-title":"Optical generation of high frequency ultrasound using two-dimensional gold nanostructure","volume":"89","author":"Hou","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2018.05.025","article-title":"Constraints definition and application optimization based on geometric analysis of the frequency measurement method by pulse coincidence","volume":"126","author":"Sergiyenko","year":"2018","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2018.05.008","article-title":"Optimization of pulse width for frequency measurement by the method of rational approximations principle","volume":"125","author":"Sergiyenko","year":"2018","journal-title":"Measurement"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/11\/3879\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:29:06Z","timestamp":1760196546000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/11\/3879"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,11]]},"references-count":17,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s18113879"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18113879","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,11]]}}}