{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T17:39:40Z","timestamp":1774978780404,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,14]],"date-time":"2018-11-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1542153600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"The Science and Technology Project of SGCC","award":["5204BB1600CQ"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["5204BB1600CQ"]}]},{"name":"The Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","award":["2016XS93"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2016XS93"]}]},{"name":"The Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","award":["2017MS102"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017MS102"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The temperature distribution and deformation of the transformer windings cannot be measured in a distributed manner by the traditional method and failure location cannot be performed. To solve these problems, we present a transformer winding temperature and strain based on a distributed optical fibre sensing detection method. The design of the optical fibre winding composite model is developed and simulated winding temperature rise test and local deformation test distinguish between measuring the winding temperature and the strain curve. The test results show that the distributed optical fibre can transmit wire strain efficiently. Optical fibres, in the process of winding, have a certain pre-stress. Using the Brillouin\u2013Raman joint measuring method, one can effectively extract the optical fibre temperature and strain information and measure the length of the winding direction of the temperature and strain distribution curve to a temperature measurement precision of \u00b12 \u00b0C and strain detection accuracy of \u00b150 \u03bc\u03b5. The system can carry out local hot spot and deformation localisation, providing new ideas for the transformer winding state monitoring technology.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18113932","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,14]],"date-time":"2018-11-14T10:58:22Z","timestamp":1542193102000},"page":"3932","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["A Feasibility Study of Transformer Winding Temperature and Strain Detection Based on Distributed Optical Fibre Sensors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7942-2112","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yunpeng","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Alternate Electrical Power System with Renewable Energy Sources, North China Electric Power University, Baoding 071003, China"},{"name":"Hebei Provincial Key Laboratory of Power Transmission Equipment Security Defence, North China Electric Power University, Baoding 071003, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0435-7341","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuan","family":"Tian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hebei Provincial Key Laboratory of Power Transmission Equipment Security Defence, North China Electric Power University, Baoding 071003, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaozhou","family":"Fan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hebei Provincial Key Laboratory of Power Transmission Equipment Security Defence, North China Electric Power University, Baoding 071003, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yanan","family":"Bu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hebei Provincial Key Laboratory of Power Transmission Equipment Security Defence, North China Electric Power University, Baoding 071003, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Peng","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hebei Provincial Key Laboratory of Power Transmission Equipment Security Defence, North China Electric Power University, Baoding 071003, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Huan","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hebei Provincial Key Laboratory of Power Transmission Equipment Security Defence, North China Electric Power University, Baoding 071003, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Junyi","family":"Yin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hebei Provincial Key Laboratory of Power Transmission Equipment Security Defence, North China Electric Power University, Baoding 071003, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Xiaojiang","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Grid Hebei Electric Power Company, Shijiazhuang 050021, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110","DOI":"10.1109\/TPWRD.2003.817516","article-title":"Temperature responses to step changes in the load current of power transformers","volume":"18","author":"Nordman","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Deliv."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1284","DOI":"10.1109\/TPWRD.2003.817740","article-title":"A new method for the calculation of the hot-spot temperature in power transformers with ONAN cooling","volume":"18","author":"Radakovic","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Deliv."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1109\/61.915478","article-title":"A fundamental approach to transformer thermal modeling. I. Theory and equivalent circuit","volume":"16","author":"Swift","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Deliv."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"435","article-title":"On-line temperature monitoring system of HV electric apparatus based on optical-fibre fluorescence","volume":"27","author":"Wen","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Shenyang Univ. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"23","article-title":"Research on temperature measurement of oil immersed transformer windings based on fluorescent optical fibre sensing","volume":"21","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Xi\u2019an Univ."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1243","DOI":"10.1109\/50.400692","article-title":"Bragg grating-based laser sensors systems with interferometric interrogation and wavelength division multiplexing","volume":"13","author":"Koo","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Light. Technol."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"160","article-title":"Development of oil-immersed transformers with built-in fibre bragg grating sensors","volume":"33","author":"Deng","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. CSEE"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.epsr.2009.08.013","article-title":"Bragg system for temperature monitoring in distribution transformers","volume":"80","author":"Martinez","year":"2010","journal-title":"Electr. Power Syst. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1264","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2008.926926","article-title":"Multipoint fibre-optic hot-spot sensing network integrated into high power transformer for continuous monitoring","volume":"8","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"41","article-title":"Study on on-line detecting of transformer winding deformation based on parameter identification of leakage reactance","volume":"46","author":"Ou","year":"2010","journal-title":"High Volltage Appar."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2144","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAS.1978.354718","article-title":"Transformer diagnostic testing by frequency response analysis","volume":"6","author":"Dick","year":"1978","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Appar. Syst."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"996","DOI":"10.1109\/TPWRD.2009.2022674","article-title":"Apparatus for online power transformer winding monitoring using bushing tap injection","volume":"24","author":"Singh","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Deliv."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bagheri, M., Naderi, M.S., and Blackburn, T. (2011, January 15\u201317). Practical challenges in online transformer winding deformation diagnostics. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Electric Power and Energy Conversion Systems (EPECS), Sharjah, UAE.","DOI":"10.1109\/EPECS.2011.6126848"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.12989\/sss.2014.13.1.041","article-title":"Feasibility study on corrosion monitoring of a concrete column with central rebar using BOTDR","volume":"13","author":"Sun","year":"2014","journal-title":"Smart Struct. Syst."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1180","DOI":"10.1088\/0957-0233\/17\/5\/S41","article-title":"Tunnel monitoring using multicore fibre displacement sensor","volume":"17","author":"MacPherson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"261","article-title":"Finite element analysis of the degree of anchorage of photoelectric composite submarine cable with optical fibre strain","volume":"29","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trans. China Electrotech. Soc."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2005.06.024","article-title":"A distributed optical fiber sensor for temperature detection in power cables","volume":"125","author":"Yilmaz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlastec.2014.06.012","article-title":"Raman optical fiber distributed temperature sensor using wavelet transform based simplified signal processing of Raman backscattered signals","volume":"65","author":"Saxena","year":"2015","journal-title":"Opt. Laser Technol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anoop, S., Ilango, K., and Dhieep, A. (2017, January 6\u20137). Thermal stress monitoring and pre-fault detection system in power transformers using fibre optic technology. Proceedings of the International Conference on Intelligent Computing, Instrumentation and Control Technologies (ICICICT), Thalassery, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICICICT1.2017.8342682"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1002\/mop.30320","article-title":"Hot-spot temperature and temperature decay rate measurement in the oil immersed power transformer through FBG based quasi-distributed sensing system","volume":"59","author":"Deng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microw. Opt. Technol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cheng, Z., Cheng, L., and Li, W. (2012, January 1\u20132). An on-line transformer windings temperature measurement system based on fiber Bragg grating. Proceedings of the 5th Photonics and Optoelectronics Meetings on Optoelectronic Sensing and Imaging (POEM), Wuhan, China.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.919019"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Anoop, S., and Naufal, N. (2017, January 6\u20137). Monitoring of winding temperature in power transformers\u2014A study. Proceedings of the International Conference on Intelligent Computing, Instrumentation and Control Technologies (ICICICT), Thalassery, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICICICT1.2017.8342763"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1049\/el:19850402","article-title":"Distributed optical fiber Raman temperature sensor using a semiconductor light source and detector","volume":"21","author":"Dakin","year":"1985","journal-title":"Electron. Lett."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kulkarni, S.V., and Khaparde, S.A. (2016). Transformer Engineering: Design, Technology and Diagnostics, CRC Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1201\/b13011"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"035037","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/17\/3\/035037","article-title":"Investigation of the strain transfer for surface-attached optical fibre strain sensors","volume":"17","author":"Wan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Shan, H. (2016). Mechanics of Materials (II), Higher Education Press. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"56","article-title":"An experimental study on the measuring characteristics of BOTDR for structure health monitoring","volume":"38","author":"Wu","year":"2005","journal-title":"China Civ. Eng. J."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/11\/3932\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:29:37Z","timestamp":1760196577000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/11\/3932"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,14]]},"references-count":27,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s18113932"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18113932","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,14]]}}}