{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T17:34:39Z","timestamp":1774287279038,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,15]],"date-time":"2018-11-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1542240000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100018889","name":"Singapore Maritime Institute","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["SMI-2015-OF-04"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["SMI-2015-OF-04"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100018889","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>With the development in the exploitation of maritime resources, the structural health monitoring (SHM) of offshore structures becomes necessary. This study focuses on addressing the practical issues of application of fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors for the SHM of offshore structures, in particular an FPSO (floating, production, storage, and offloading unit) vessel. Due to the harsh marine environment and tough working conditions, the FBG sensors must have sufficient protection and good repeatability for long-term monitoring. Thorough research has been conducted to identify the most suitable, commercially available protection packaging for FBG sensors for offshore applications. Further, the performance of the selected FBG sensor packaging is tested under conditions of strong sunlight, heavy rain, and salty water in order to emulate the marine environment. Moreover, the installation method of the packaged FBG sensors is equally important, as it ensures the repeatability and durability of the sensors for their long-term performance. It is shown that the packaged FBG sensors can be installed using resin-based epoxy to maintain the repeatability of the sensor over the long-term. Further, the packaged FBG sensors are installed and tested on a simple FPSO model. The experimental results under full load and ballast draft conditions show that the proposed FBG sensors are competent for the SHM of offshore structures.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18113963","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,15]],"date-time":"2018-11-15T11:32:47Z","timestamp":1542281567000},"page":"3963","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Selection and Characterization of Packaged FBG Sensors for Offshore Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Lei","family":"Wu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore"},{"name":"Maritime Institute, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore"}]},{"given":"Muneesh","family":"Maheshwari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore"},{"name":"Maritime Institute, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore"}]},{"given":"Yaowen","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore"},{"name":"Maritime Institute, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Singapore"}]},{"given":"Wensheng","family":"Xiao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, China University of Petroleum, Qingdao 266580, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2579","DOI":"10.1177\/1045389X17692051","article-title":"Numerical analysis on design and application of cement-based sensor for structural health monitoring","volume":"28","author":"Cui","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2017.05.064","article-title":"Development of sensor validation methodologies for structural health monitoring: A comprehensive review","volume":"109","author":"Yi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1007\/s11831-015-9145-0","article-title":"The Vibration Monitoring Methods and Signal Processing Techniques for Structural Health Monitoring: A Review","volume":"23","author":"Goyal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Arch. Comput. Methods Eng."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euromechsol.2017.06.005","article-title":"An experimental and theoretical fatigue study on macro fiber composite (MFC) under thermo-mechanical loadings","volume":"66","author":"Pandey","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Mech. A Solids"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yin, F., Ye, D., Zhu, C., Qiu, L., and Huang, Y.A. (2017). Stretchable, Highly Durable Ternary Nanocomposite Strain Sensor for Structural Health Monitoring of Flexible Aircraft. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17112677"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04017202","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0001925","article-title":"Structural Identification Using Computer Vision-Based Bridge Health Monitoring","volume":"144","author":"Khuc","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Struct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1007\/s13344-017-0079-1","article-title":"Study on dynamic characteristics of hydraulic pumping unit on offshore platform","volume":"31","author":"Chang","year":"2017","journal-title":"China Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3510","DOI":"10.1109\/TIM.2015.2459511","article-title":"Tilted Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors for Reinforcement Corrosion Measurement in Marine Concrete Structure","volume":"64","author":"Islam","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1115\/1.1513176","article-title":"Dynasim\u2014A time domain simulator of anchored FPSO","volume":"124","author":"Nishimoto","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Offshore Mech. Arct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apor.2016.03.010","article-title":"Time-domain simulation of berthing problem between FPSO and shuttle tanker in waves","volume":"58","author":"Nam","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Ocean Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/16\/4\/003","article-title":"Concrete structural health monitoring using embedded piezoceramic transducers","volume":"16","author":"Song","year":"2007","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Z.S., Zhou, X., Wang, X., Dong, L.L., and Qian, Y.H. (2017). Deployment of a Smart Structural Health Monitoring System for Long-Span Arch Bridges: A Review and a Case Study. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17092151"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, T.L., Tan, Y.G., Han, X., Zheng, K., and Zhou, Z.D. (2017). Diaphragm Based Fiber Bragg Grating Acceleration Sensor with Temperature Compensation. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17010218"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2017.03.031","article-title":"String-type based two-dimensional fiber Bragg grating vibration sensing principle and structure optimization","volume":"259","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19992","DOI":"10.3390\/s150819992","article-title":"Damage Detection Based on Static Strain Responses Using FBG in a Wind Turbine Blade","volume":"15","author":"Tian","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marstruc.2016.10.006","article-title":"An application of Structural Health Monitoring system based on FBG sensors to offshore wind turbine support structure model","volume":"51","author":"Mieloszyk","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mar. Struct."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marstruc.2016.05.010","article-title":"Damage detection and localization method based on a frequency spectrum change in a scaled tripod model with strain rosettes","volume":"49","author":"Opoka","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mar. Struct."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2016.07.060","article-title":"Laboratory tests on local damage detection for jacket-type offshore structures using optical FBG sensors based on statistical approaches","volume":"124","author":"Yi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29648","DOI":"10.3390\/s151129648","article-title":"Study and Test of a New Bundle-Structure Riser Stress Monitoring Sensor Based on FBG","volume":"15","author":"Xu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apor.2014.06.003","article-title":"Experimental method of strain\/stress measurements on tall sailing ships using Fibre Bragg Grating sensors","volume":"47","author":"Majewska","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Ocean Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1714","DOI":"10.1007\/s11431-014-5621-2","article-title":"Application of fiber Bragg grating based strain sensor in pipeline vortex-induced vibration measurement","volume":"57","author":"Ren","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. China Technol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1779","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijleo.2010.11.007","article-title":"The distributed dynamic combined-stresses measurement of ship thruster inner-skin using fiber Bragg grating sensor rosette array","volume":"122","author":"Sun","year":"2011","journal-title":"Optik"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2015.12.035","article-title":"Design, implementation and analysis of full coupled monitoring system of FPSO with soft yoke mooring system","volume":"113","author":"Wu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2006.04.054","article-title":"Health monitoring of marine composite structural joints using fiber optic sensors","volume":"75","author":"Li","year":"2006","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"084401","DOI":"10.1117\/1.2335858","article-title":"Health monitoring system for offshore platform with fiber Bragg grating sensors","volume":"45","author":"Ren","year":"2006","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1177\/1045389X06056064","article-title":"A Smart Health Monitoring System with Application to Welded Structures using Piezoceramic and Fiber Optic Transducers","volume":"17","author":"Kim","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Int. Mater. Syst. Struct."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"184","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2016.04.033","article-title":"Application of FBG sensors for geotechnical health monitoring, a review of sensor design, implementation methods and packaging techniques","volume":"244","author":"Hong","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2014.2353040","article-title":"Application of a Packaged Fiber Bragg Grating Sensor to Outdoor Optical Fiber Cabinets for Environmental Monitoring","volume":"15","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1805","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2014.2303145","article-title":"Quantitative sensitivity analysis of surface attached optical fiber strain sensor","volume":"14","author":"Wan","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cryogenics.2015.02.002","article-title":"Design, fabrication, and testing of fiber Bragg grating sensors for cryogenic long-range displacement measurement","volume":"68","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cryogenics"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1007\/s13320-015-0259-7","article-title":"FBG based high sensitive pressure sensor and its low-cost interrogation system with enhanced resolution","volume":"5","author":"Pachava","year":"2015","journal-title":"Photonic Sens."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1109\/MIM.2003.1200281","article-title":"Embedding optical fibers in metal alloys","volume":"6","author":"Tai","year":"2003","journal-title":"Instrum. Meas. Mag. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1109\/TMECH.2010.2047111","article-title":"Temperature Sensing of Metal-Coated Fiber Bragg Grating","volume":"15","author":"Feng","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE\/ASME Trans. Mechatron."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, J.Y., Van Roosbroeck, J., Vlekken, J., Daerden, E., Martinez, A.B., Geernaert, T., Berghmans, F., Van Hoe, B., Lindner, E., and Caucheteur, C. (2018, January 14). Packaged FBG based optical fiber sensor for simultaneous pressure and temperature monitoring. Proceedings of the Fiber Optic Sensors and Applications XV, Orlando, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2305095"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1198","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2013.2240374","article-title":"A Dual-Parameter Optical Fiber Sensor for Concurrent Strain and Temperature Measurement: Design, Fabrication, Packaging, and Calibration","volume":"31","author":"Alemohammad","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Lightw. Technol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1007\/s13320-018-0504-y","article-title":"Packaging and Temperature Compensation of Fiber Bragg Grating for Strain Sensing: A Survey","volume":"8","author":"Kuang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Photonic Sens."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/S0263-8223(00)00094-5","article-title":"Strain monitoring in FRP laminates and concrete beams using FBG sensors","volume":"51","author":"Lau","year":"2001","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yofte.2005.03.001","article-title":"Temperature-independent fiber Bragg grating strain sensor using bimetal cantilever","volume":"11","author":"Tian","year":"2005","journal-title":"Opt. Fiber Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luo, D., Li, P., Yue, Y.C., Ma, J.X., and Yang, H.Z. (2017). In-Fiber Optic Salinity Sensing: A Potential Application for Offshore Concrete Structure Protection. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17050962"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2016.02.016","article-title":"Hull girder reliability assessment for FPSOs","volume":"114","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1016\/j.oceaneng.2015.06.039","article-title":"Dynamic behaviors of conventional SCR and lazy-wave SCR for FPSOs in deepwater","volume":"106","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ocean Eng."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/11\/3963\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:29:52Z","timestamp":1760196592000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/18\/11\/3963"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,15]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11]]}},"alternative-id":["s18113963"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s18113963","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,15]]}}}