{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T15:59:41Z","timestamp":1778601581772,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":18,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,20]],"date-time":"2018-11-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1542672000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000266","name":"Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["EP\/I028153\/1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EP\/I028153\/1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000266","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This article evaluates the use of least-squares support vector machines, with ray-traced data, to solve the problem of localisation in multipath environments. The schemes discussed concern 2-D localisation, but could easily be extended to 3-D. It does not require NLOS identification and mitigation, hence, it can be applied in any environment. Some background details and a detailed experimental setup is provided. Comparisons with schemes that require NLOS identification and mitigation, from earlier work, are also presented. The results demonstrate that the direct localisation scheme using least-squares support vector machine (the Direct method) achieves superior outage to TDOA and TOA\/AOA for NLOS environments. TDOA has better outage in LOS environments. TOA\/AOA performs better for an accepted outage probability of 20 percent or greater but as the outage probability lowers, the Direct method becomes better.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s18114059","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,22]],"date-time":"2018-11-22T09:18:25Z","timestamp":1542878305000},"page":"4059","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Employing Ray-Tracing and Least-Squares Support Vector Machines for Localisation"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"18","author":[{"given":"Benny","family":"Chitambira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Communication Systems &amp; Networks Group, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1UB, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Simon","family":"Armour","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Communication Systems &amp; Networks Group, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1UB, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Stephen","family":"Wales","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Roke Manor Research, Romsey, Hampshire SO51 0ZN, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6798-7001","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mark","family":"Beach","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Communication Systems &amp; Networks Group, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1UB, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2018, November 11). 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