{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,27]],"date-time":"2026-03-27T09:35:06Z","timestamp":1774604106175,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,21]],"date-time":"2018-12-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1545350400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems) multipath has been subject to scientific research for decades and although numerous methods and techniques have already been developed to mitigate this effect, it is still one of the accuracy-limiting factors in many GNSS applications. Since multipath is highly dependent on the individual antenna environment, there is still a need for new methods and further investigations to increase the understanding of this systematic effect. In this paper, the concept of Fresnel zones is applied to two different aspects of multipath. First, Fresnel zones are determined for the line-of-sight transmission between satellite and receiver. By comparing the boundary of the Fresnel zones to an obstruction adaptive elevation mask, potentially diffracted signals can be identified and excluded from the position estimation process. Both the percentage of epochs with fixed ambiguities and the positioning accuracy can be increased by the proposed method. Second, Fresnel zones are used to analyze the multipath induced by a horizontal and spatially-limited reflector. The comparison of simulated and real signal-to-noise (SNR) observations reveals a relationship between the percentage of the overlap of the Fresnel zone and reflector and the occurrence of multipath. It is found that an overlap of 50% is sufficient to induce multipath effects. This is of special interest, since this does not confirm theoretical assumptions of the multipath theory.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19010025","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,21]],"date-time":"2018-12-21T09:24:11Z","timestamp":1545384251000},"page":"25","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":29,"title":["GPS Multipath Analysis Using Fresnel Zones"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7400-5862","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Florian","family":"Zimmermann","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geodesy and Geoinformation, University of Bonn, D-53115 Bonn, Germany"}]},{"given":"Berit","family":"Schmitz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geodesy and Geoinformation, University of Bonn, D-53115 Bonn, Germany"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1941-150X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lasse","family":"Klingbeil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geodesy and Geoinformation, University of Bonn, D-53115 Bonn, Germany"}]},{"given":"Heiner","family":"Kuhlmann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Geodesy and Geoinformation, University of Bonn, D-53115 Bonn, Germany"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Hofmann-Wellenhof, B., Lichtenegger, H., and Wasle, E. (2008). GNSS\u2013Global Navigation Satellite Systems: GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and More, Springer."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Groves, P. (2013). Principles of GNSS, Inertial, and Multisensor Integrated Navigation Systems, Artech House."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/s001900050242","article-title":"GPS signal diffraction modelling: The stochastic SIGMA-\u0394 model","volume":"73","author":"Brunner","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Geodesy"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Dilssner, F., Seeber, G., W\u00fcbbena, G., and Schmitz, M. (2008, January 16\u201319). Impact of near-field effects on the GNSS position solution. Proceedings of the 21st International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS 2008), Savannah, GA, USA."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Teunissen, P., and Montenbruck, O. (2017). Springer Handbook of Global Navigation Satellite Systems, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-42928-1"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, K., Chen, P., and Teunissen, P. (2018). Fast Phase-Only Positioning with Triple-Frequency GPS. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18113922"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smyrnaios, M., Sch\u00f6n, S., and Nicol\u00e1s, M.L. (2013). Multipath Propagation, Characterization and Modeling in GNSS. Geodetic Sciences-Observations, Modeling and Applications, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/54567"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-006-0038-4","article-title":"Finding the repeat times of the GPS constellation","volume":"11","author":"Agnew","year":"2007","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-009-0352-z","article-title":"Sidereal filtering based on single differences for mitigating GPS multipath effects on short baselines","volume":"84","author":"Zhong","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Geodesy"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-015-0473-1","article-title":"Effectiveness of observation-domain sidereal filtering for GPS precise point positioning","volume":"20","author":"Atkins","year":"2016","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-016-0533-1","article-title":"Wavelet packets based denoising method for measurement domain repeat-time multipath filtering in GPS static high-precision positioning","volume":"21","author":"Lau","year":"2016","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Granstr\u00f6m, C., and Johansson, J. (2007, January 6\u20138). Site-dependent effects in high-accuracy applications of GNSS. Proceedings of the Symposium of the IAG Subcomission for Europe (EUREF), London, UK."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-015-0870-9","article-title":"Mitigation of multipath effect in GNSS short baseline positioning by the multipath hemispherical map","volume":"90","author":"Dong","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geodesy"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-014-0367-7","article-title":"Generating statistically robust multipath stacking maps using congruent cells","volume":"19","author":"Fuhrmann","year":"2015","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1186\/BF03352281","article-title":"An extended weight model for GPS phase observations","volume":"52","author":"Wieser","year":"2000","journal-title":"Earth Planets Space"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Lau, L., and Cross, P. (2006, January 26\u201329). A new signal-to-noise-ratio based stochastic model for GNSS high-precision carrier phase data processing algorithms in the presence of multipath errors. Proceedings of the 19th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation, Fort Worth, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1515\/JAG.2009.009","article-title":"Carrier phase multipath mitigation based on GNSS signal quality measurements","volume":"3","author":"Rost","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geodesy"},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Irsigler, M. (2008). Multipath Propagation, Mitigation and Monitoring in the Light of Galileo and the Modernized GPS. [Ph.D. Thesis, Universit\u00e4t der Bundeswehr M\u00fcnchen]."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Rao, B.R., Kunysz, W., Fante, R., and McDonald, K. (2013). GPS\/GNSS Antennas, Artech House."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Hannah, B.M. (2001). Modelling and Simulation of GPS Multipath Propagation. [Ph.D. Thesis, Queensland University of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1017\/S0373463307004079","article-title":"Code multipath modelling in the urban environment using large virtual reality city models: Determining the local environment","volume":"60","author":"Bradbury","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Navig."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1007\/s00190-007-0139-z","article-title":"Development and testing of a new ray-tracing approach to GNSS carrier-phase multipath modelling","volume":"81","author":"Lau","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Geodesy"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Klostius, R., Wieser, A., and Brunner, F.K. (2006, January 22\u201324). Treatment of diffraction effects caused by mountain ridges. Proceedings of the 3rd IAG\/12th FIG Symposium, Baden, Austria."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Lienhart, W. (2006). GNSS-Monitoring of Surface Displacements in Urban Environments. Ingenieurvermessung 17, Beitr\u00e4ge zum 18. Internationalen Ingenieurvermessungskurs, Graz, \u00d6sterreich, Wichmann."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1695","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-017-0650-5","article-title":"Empirical assessment of obstruction adaptive elevation masks to mitigate site-dependent effects","volume":"21","author":"Zimmermann","year":"2017","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-018-0744-8","article-title":"Software tools for GNSS interferometric reflectometry (GNSS-IR)","volume":"22","author":"Roesler","year":"2018","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1002\/wat2.1167","article-title":"GPS interferometric reflectometry: applications to surface soil moisture, snow depth, and vegetation water content in the western United States","volume":"3","author":"Larson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Water"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-014-0383-7","article-title":"Using geodetic GPS receivers to measure vegetation water content","volume":"19","author":"Wan","year":"2015","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1109\/TGRS.2013.2242332","article-title":"Effects of near-surface soil moisture on GPS SNR data: development of a retrieval algorithm for soil moisture","volume":"52","author":"Chew","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1175\/JTECH-D-16-0101.1","article-title":"A 10-Year Comparison of Water Levels Measured with a Geodetic GPS Receiver versus a Conventional Tide Gauge","volume":"34","author":"Larson","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Beckheinrich, J. (2016). GPS Reflectometry: Innovative Flood Monitoring at the Mekong Delta. [Ph.D. Thesis, Technische Universit\u00e4t Berlin]."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1002\/rds.20049","article-title":"A zeppelin experiment to study airborne altimetry using specular Global Navigation Satellite System reflections","volume":"48","author":"Semmling","year":"2013","journal-title":"Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"954","DOI":"10.1002\/2013GL058725","article-title":"Sea surface topography retrieved from GNSS reflectometry phase data of the GEOHALO flight mission","volume":"41","author":"Semmling","year":"2014","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Helm, A., Beyerle, G., Stosius, R., Montenbruck, O., Yudanov, S., and Rothacher, M. (2007, January 1\u20134). The GNSS occultation, reflectometry, and scatterometry space receiver GORS: Current status and future plans within GITEWS. Proceedings of the ESA 1st Colloquium, Scientific and Fundamental Aspects of the Galileo Programme, Toulouse, France."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Bilich, A. (2006). Improving the Precision and Accuracy of Geodetic GPS: Applications to Multipath and Seismology. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Colorado]."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Smyrnaios, M. (2016). Carrier-Phase Multipath in Satellite-Based Positioning. [Ph.D. Thesis, Leibniz Universit\u00e4t Hannover, Fakult\u00e4t f\u00fcr Bauingenieurwesen und Geod\u00e4sie]."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Rost, C. (2011). Phasenmehrwegereduzierung Basierend auf Signalqualit\u00e4tsmessungen Geod\u00e4tischer GNSS-Empf\u00e4nger. [Ph.D. Thesis, Technische Universit\u00e4t Dresden, Fakult\u00e4t Forst-, Geo-und Hydrowissenschaften]."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1007\/s10291-012-0259-7","article-title":"GPS snow sensing: Results from the EarthScope Plate Boundary Observatory","volume":"17","author":"Larson","year":"2013","journal-title":"GPS Solut."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00863419","article-title":"The least-squares ambiguity decorrelation adjustment: A method for fast GPS integer ambiguity estimation","volume":"70","author":"Teunissen","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Geodesy"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.2514\/1.15905","article-title":"New global navigation satellite system ambiguity resolution method compared to existing approaches","volume":"29","author":"Verhagen","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Guid. Control Dyn."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Zeimetz, P., and Kuhlmann, H. (2008, January 14\u201319). On the accuracy of absolute GNSS antenna calibration and the conception of a new anechoic chamber. Proceedings of the FIG Working Week, Stockholm, Sweden."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1515\/jag-2014-0006","article-title":"Biased and unbiased estimates based on laser scans of surfaces with unknown deformations","volume":"8","author":"Holst","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Appl. Geodesy"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/1\/25\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:35:32Z","timestamp":1760196932000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/1\/25"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,21]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s19010025"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19010025","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,21]]}}}