{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,29]],"date-time":"2025-10-29T13:34:56Z","timestamp":1761744896151,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,23]],"date-time":"2018-12-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1545523200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007258","name":"Fundo para o Desenvolvimento Tecnol\u00f3gico das Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["01.14.0231.00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["01.14.0231.00"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007258","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This article addresses the impact of forward error correction when applied to the report channel transmissions of a centralized decision fusion cooperative spectrum sensing scheme designed to detect idle orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDMA) subchannels. The OFDMA signal is transmitted over slow frequency-selective multipath Rayleigh fading channels and sensed using the maximum eigenvalue detection test statistic. The decisions on the OFDMA subchannel occupancy are transmitted to a fusion center over report channels represented by a shadowed fading model combining a three-dimensional spatially correlated shadowing with a slow and flat multipath Rayleigh fading. Binary Bose-Chaudhuri-Hochquenghem (BCH) and Repetition codes are used to protect these decisions. Results show that shadowing correlation severely deteriorates the overall spectrum sensing performance and that error correction may not be able to protect the report channel transmissions. It can be even worse with respect to the system performance especially at low signal-to-noise regimes. In the situations in which error correction is effective, the Repetition code is capable of outperforming the BCH, meaning that the diversity gain may be more relevant than the coding gain when the spectrum sensing decisions are subjected to correlated shadowing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19010051","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,24]],"date-time":"2018-12-24T10:37:49Z","timestamp":1545647869000},"page":"51","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Cooperative Spectrum Sensing with Coded and Uncoded Decision Fusion under Correlated Shadowed Fading Report Channels"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3054-395X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lucas dos Santos","family":"Costa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute of Telecommunications\u2014Inatel Av. Jo\u00e3o de Camargo 510, Santa Rita do Sapuca\u00ed, MG 37540-000, Brazil"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1304-792X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dayan Adionel","family":"Guimar\u00e3es","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute of Telecommunications\u2014Inatel Av. Jo\u00e3o de Camargo 510, Santa Rita do Sapuca\u00ed, MG 37540-000, Brazil"}]},{"given":"Rausley Adriano Amaral","family":"De Souza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute of Telecommunications\u2014Inatel Av. Jo\u00e3o de Camargo 510, Santa Rita do Sapuca\u00ed, MG 37540-000, Brazil"}]},{"given":"Roberto C\u00e9sar Dias Vilela","family":"Bomfin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Vodafone Chair Mobile Communication Systems, Technische Universit\u00e4t Dresden, D-01062 Dresden, Germany"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2006.05.001","article-title":"NeXt Generation\/Dynamic Spectrum Access\/Cognitive Radio Wireless Networks: A Survey","volume":"50","author":"Akyildiz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1109\/98.788210","article-title":"Cognitive radio: Making software radios more personal","volume":"6","author":"Mitola","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE Pers. Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1109\/SURV.2009.090109","article-title":"A survey of spectrum sensing algorithms for cognitive radio applications","volume":"11","author":"Yucek","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1128","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2008.2008540","article-title":"Optimal Multiband Joint Detection for Spectrum Sensing in Cognitive Radio Networks","volume":"57","author":"Quan","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1232","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2011.012411.100611","article-title":"Energy Detection Based Cooperative Spectrum Sensing in Cognitive Radio Networks","volume":"10","author":"Atapattu","year":"2011","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, Z., and Giannakis, G.B. (2006, January 8\u201310). A Wavelet Approach to Wideband Spectrum Sensing for Cognitive Radios. Proceedings of the 2006 1st International Conference on Cognitive Radio Oriented Wireless Networks and Communications, Mykonos Island, Greece.","DOI":"10.1109\/CROWNCOM.2006.363459"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6530","DOI":"10.3390\/s90806530","article-title":"A Unified Multi-Functional Dynamic Spectrum Access Framework: Tutorial, Theory and Multi-GHz Wideband Testbed","volume":"9","author":"Qiu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phycom.2010.12.003","article-title":"Cooperative Spectrum Sensing in Cognitive Radio Networks: A Survey","volume":"4","author":"Akyildiz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Phys. Commun."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"878","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2009.2015716","article-title":"Cooperative Communications for Cognitive Radio Networks","volume":"97","author":"Letaief","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simon, M.K., and Alouini, M.S. (2005). Digital Communication over Fading Channels, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/0471715220"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1007\/s11277-010-9938-2","article-title":"Statistical Models for Fading and Shadowed Fading Channels in Wireless Systems: A Pedagogical Perspective","volume":"60","author":"Shankar","year":"2011","journal-title":"Wirel. Pers. Commun."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.1987.1146527","article-title":"A statistical model for indoor multipath propagation","volume":"5","author":"Saleh","year":"1987","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1109\/26.664305","article-title":"A statistical basis for lognormal shadowing effects in multipath fading channels","volume":"46","author":"Coulson","year":"1998","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Bomfin, R.C.D.V., and de Souza, R.A.A. (2015, January 11\u201314). A New Spatially Correlated Shadowed Channel Model with Cognitive Radio Application. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE 81st Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC Spring), Glasgow, UK."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Bomfin, R.C.D.V., and de Souza, R.A.A. (2015, January 14\u201317). Performance of Centralized Data-fusion Cooperative Eigenvalue-based Spectrum Sensing under Correlated Shadowed Fading. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Telecommunications (IWT), Santa Rita do Sapucai, Brazil."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Yang, S.C. (2010). OFDMA System Analysis and Design, Artech House."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03391545","article-title":"Overview of 5G modulation and waveforms candidates","volume":"1","author":"Nekovee","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Commun. Inf. Netw."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2016.1600313CM","article-title":"Generalized DFT-Spread-OFDM as 5G Waveform","volume":"54","author":"Berardinelli","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Berardinelli, G., Tavares, F.M.L., S\u00f8rensen, T.B., Mogensen, P., and Pajukoski, K. (2013, January 9\u201313). Zero-tail DFT-spread-OFDM signals. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE Globecom Workshops (GC Wkshps), Atlanta, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOCOMW.2013.6824991"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sahin, A., Yang, R., Ghosh, M., and Olesen, R.L. (2015, January 6\u201310). An Improved Unique Word DFT-Spread OFDM Scheme for 5G Systems. Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE Globecom Workshops (GC Wkshps), San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOCOMW.2015.7414173"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2002.1007373","article-title":"Impulse generation with appropriate amplitude, length, inter-arrival, and spectral characteristics","volume":"20","author":"Mann","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3045","DOI":"10.1109\/TCOMM.2014.2345566","article-title":"Generalized Frequency Division Multiplexing for 5th Generation Cellular Networks","volume":"62","author":"Michailow","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2474","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2016.2565566","article-title":"OFDM Inspired Waveforms for 5G","volume":"18","author":"Moradi","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2016.1600337CM","article-title":"On the Waveform for 5G","volume":"54","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3390\/jsan2010001","article-title":"Cooperative Spectrum Sensing Using Eigenvalue Fusion for OFDMA and Other Wideband Signals","volume":"2","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Sens. Actuator Netw."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nadler, B., Penna, F., and Garello, R. (2011, January 5\u20139). Performance of Eigenvalue-Based Signal Detectors with Known and Unknown Noise Level. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC), Kyoto, Japan.","DOI":"10.1109\/icc.2011.5963473"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guimar\u00e3es, D.A. (2009). Digital Transmission: A Simulation-Aided Introduction with VisSim\/Comm, Springer. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-01359-1"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Portelinha, F.M., and Cardieri, P. (2012, January 13\u201316). Collaborative Spectrum Sensing under Spatially Correlated Shadowing Fading. Proceedings of the XXX Brazilian Telecommunications Symposium, SBrT, Bras\u00edlia, Brazil.","DOI":"10.14209\/sbrt.2012.136"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1109\/25.97517","article-title":"Autonomous adaptive frequency assignment for TDMA portable radio systems","volume":"40","author":"Chuang","year":"1991","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"IEEE (2011). IEEE Standard for Information Technology\u2014Local and Metropolitan Area Networks\u2014Specific Requirements\u2014Part 22: Cognitive Wireless RAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specifications: Policies and Procedures for Operation in the TV Bands, IEEE. IEEE Std 802.22-2011."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3009","DOI":"10.1007\/s11277-018-5322-4","article-title":"The Optimization of Combination Scheme in Cooperative Spectrum Sensing Based on the Practical Reporting Frame Format","volume":"102","author":"Zhu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Wirel. Pers. Commun."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Proakis, J. (2001). Digital Communications, McGraw-Hill."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Feher, K. (1995). Wireless Digital Communications: Modulation and Spread Spectrum Applications, Prentice-Hall PTR."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1007\/s11235-016-0138-6","article-title":"Performance-traffic tradeoff in eigenvalue fusion and decision fusion for spectrum sensing of OFDMA signals under errors in the reporting channel","volume":"63","author":"Costa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Telecommun. Syst."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1109\/26.554278","article-title":"Soft decision decoding of linear block codes based on ordered statistics for the Rayleigh fading channel with coherent detection","volume":"45","author":"Fossorier","year":"1997","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Commun."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2018.01.124","article-title":"A low complexity soft decision decoder for linear block codes","volume":"127","author":"Alaoui","year":"2018","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2230","DOI":"10.1109\/TIT.2003.815802","article-title":"Asymptotic performance of single parity-check product codes","volume":"49","author":"Rankin","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Transa. Inf. Theory"},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Lin, S., and Costello, D.J. (2004). Error Control Coding, Second Edition, Prentice-Hall, Inc."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3051","DOI":"10.1109\/TIT.2009.2021379","article-title":"Channel Polarization: A Method for Constructing Capacity-Achieving Codes for Symmetric Binary-Input Memoryless Channels","volume":"55","author":"Arikan","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Liva, G., Gaudio, L., Ninacs, T., and Jerkovits, T. (arXiv, 2016). Code Design for Short Blocks: A Survey, arXiv."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.1986.310699","article-title":"Optimal Data Fusion in Multiple Sensor Detection Systems","volume":"AES-22","author":"Chair","year":"1986","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1998","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.2018.2807300","article-title":"Multichannel Cooperative Spectrum Sensing That Integrates Channel Decoding With Fusion-Based Decision","volume":"54","author":"Azmi","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2017","DOI":"10.1109\/TWC.2014.2378789","article-title":"Coded Collaborative Spectrum Sensing With Joint Channel Decoding and Decision Fusion","volume":"14","author":"Azmi","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_44","first-page":"31","article-title":"Error resilient video streaming with BCH code protection in wireless sensor networks","volume":"10","author":"Petracca","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Commun. Softw. Syst."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"825327","DOI":"10.1155\/2011\/825327","article-title":"Iterative fusion of distributed decisions over the Gaussian multiple-access channel using concatenated BCH-LDGM codes","volume":"2011","author":"Manjarres","year":"2011","journal-title":"EURASIP J. Wirel. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guimar\u00e3es, D.A., Costa, L.S., and de Souza, R.A.A. (2014, January 17\u201320). Comparison between eigenvalue fusion and decision fusion for spectrum sensing of OFDMA signals under errors in the control channel. Proceedings of the International Telecommunications Symposium (ITS), Centro de Conven\u00e7\u00f5es Rebou\u00e7as, Brazil.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITS.2014.6947981"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1109\/TSP.2011.2170978","article-title":"Cooperative Sensing With Imperfect Reporting Channels: Hard Decisions or Soft Decisions?","volume":"60","author":"Chaudhari","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1900","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sigpro.2013.01.016","article-title":"BEP walls for cooperative sensing in cognitive radios using K-out-of-N fusion rules","volume":"93","author":"Chaudhari","year":"2013","journal-title":"Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Altay, C., Yilmaz, H.B., and Tugcu, T. (2012, January 1\u20134). Cooperative sensing analysis under imperfect reporting channel. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE Symposium on Computers and Communications (ISCC), Cappadocia, Turkey.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISCC.2012.6249392"},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"49","article-title":"Performance and Reporting Channel Traffic of Eigenvalue Fusion and Block-coded Decision Fusion for Spectrum Sensing of OFDMA Signals","volume":"31","author":"Costa","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Commun. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chaudhari, S., Lund\u00e9n, J., and Koivunen, V. (2011, January 22\u201327). BEP walls for collaborative spectrum sensing. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing (ICASSP), Prague, Czech Republic.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICASSP.2011.5946285"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chaudhari, S., Lund\u00e9n, J., and Koivunen, V. (2011, January 11\u201314). Performance limitations for cooperative spectrum sensing with reporting channel errors. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE 22nd International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications, Toronto, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/PIMRC.2011.6139978"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1109\/PROC.1978.11013","article-title":"Models for channels with memory and their applications to error control","volume":"66","author":"Kanal","year":"1978","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2145","DOI":"10.1049\/el:19911328","article-title":"Correlation model for shadow fading in mobile radio systems","volume":"27","author":"Gudmundson","year":"1991","journal-title":"Electron. Lett."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Peterson, R., Cutts, K., and Haug, J. (1995, January 25\u201328). System performance prediction for personal communication systems. Proceedings of the 1995 IEEE 45th Vehicular Technology Conference, Chicago, IL, USA."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1109\/T-VT.1985.24048","article-title":"A statistical model for a land mobile satellite link","volume":"34","author":"Loo","year":"1985","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Chen, W.H.J., Hwang, J.N., and Roy, S. (1999, January 22\u201324). Ordered statistics decoding of linear block codes on the WSSUS multipath channel. Proceedings of the 1999 IEEE Pacific Rim Conference on Communications, Computers and Signal Processing (PACRIM 1999). Conference Proceedings (Cat. No.99CH36368), Victoria, BC, Canada."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1205","DOI":"10.1109\/49.778178","article-title":"An empirically based path loss model for wireless channels in suburban environments","volume":"17","author":"Erceg","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1109\/8.127405","article-title":"914 MHz path loss prediction models for indoor wireless communications in multifloored buildings","volume":"40","author":"Seidel","year":"1992","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Antennas Propag."},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Bomfin, R.C.D.V., de Souza, R.A.A., and Guimar\u00e3es, D.A. (September, January 31). Performance of centralized data-fusion cooperative eigenvalue-based spectrum sensing under shadowed fading. Proceedings of the MOMAG 2014: 16\u00ba SBMO\u2013Simp\u00f3sio Brasileiro de Micro-ondas e Optoeletr\u00f4nica e 11\u00ba CBMag\u2013Congresso Brasileiro de Eletromagnetismo, Curitiba, Brazil."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.orl.2012.10.002","article-title":"A note on the probability of at least k successes in n correlated binary trials","volume":"41","author":"Zaigraev","year":"2013","journal-title":"Oper. Res. Lett."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/1\/51\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:35:48Z","timestamp":1760196948000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/1\/51"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,23]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s19010051"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19010051","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,12,23]]}}}