{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,13]],"date-time":"2026-05-13T09:07:31Z","timestamp":1778663251960,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":30,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,3]],"date-time":"2019-01-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1546473600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003593","name":"Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient\u00edfico e Tecnol\u00f3gico","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["309335\/2017-5"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["309335\/2017-5"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003593","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003593","name":"Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient\u00edfico e Tecnol\u00f3gico","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["201155\/2015-0"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["201155\/2015-0"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003593","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001871","name":"Funda\u00e7\u00e3o para a Ci\u00eancia e a Tecnologia","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["UID\/EEA\/500008\/2013 Project"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/EEA\/500008\/2013 Project"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001871","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007258","name":"Fundo para o Desenvolvimento Tecnol\u00f3gico das Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["01.14.0231.00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["01.14.0231.00"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007258","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Deanship of Scientific Research at King Saud University","award":["RG-1439-022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["RG-1439-022"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The Internet of Things (IoT) is an emerging paradigm that proposes the connection of objects to exchange information in order to reach a common objective. In IoT networks, it is expected that the nodes will exchange data between each other and with external Internet services. However, due to deployment costs, not all the network devices are able to communicate with the Internet directly. Thus, other network nodes should use Internet-connected nodes as a gateway to forward messages to Internet services. Considering the fact that main routing protocols for low-power networks are not able to reach suitable performance in the displayed IoT environment, this work presents an enhancement to the Lightweight On-demand Ad hoc Distance-vector Routing Protocol\u2014Next Generation (LOADng) for IoT scenarios. The proposal, named LOADng-IoT, is based on three improvements that will allow the nodes to find Internet-connected nodes autonomously and dynamically, decreasing the control message overhead required for the route construction, and reducing the loss of data messages directed to the Internet. Based on the performed assessment study, which considered several number of nodes in dense, sparse, and mobility scenarios, the proposed approach is able to present significant results in metrics related to quality-of-service, reliability, and energy efficiency.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19010150","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,3]],"date-time":"2019-01-03T11:11:56Z","timestamp":1546513916000},"page":"150","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":26,"title":["LOADng-IoT: An Enhanced Routing Protocol for Internet of Things Applications over Low Power Networks"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7543-0628","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 V. V.","family":"Sobral","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"},{"name":"Department of Education, Federal Institute of Maranh\u00e3o (IFMA), R. Afonso Pena, 174, S\u00e3o Lu\u00eds-MA 65010-030, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8657-3800","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joel J. P. C.","family":"Rodrigues","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Telecomunica\u00e7\u00f5es, Universidade da Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilh\u00e3, Portugal"},{"name":"National Institute of Telecommunications (Inatel), Santa Rita do Sapuca\u00ed-MG 37540-000, Brazil"},{"name":"Center of Excellence in Information Assurance (CoEIA), King Saud University, Riyadh 11653, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1482-6404","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricardo A. L.","family":"Rab\u00ealo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computing, Federal University of Piau\u00ed (UFPI), Teresina-PI 64049-550, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8062-3301","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kashif","family":"Saleem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center of Excellence in Information Assurance (CoEIA), King Saud University, Riyadh 11653, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8721-4308","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vasco","family":"Furtado","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Programa de Pos-Gradua\u00e7\u00e3o em Inform\u00e1tica Aplicada (PPGIA), University of Fortaleza (UNIFOR), Av. Washington Soares, 1321, Fortaleza-CE 60811-905, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8459","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2018.2808324","article-title":"A Survey on Resource Management in IoT Operating Systems","volume":"6","author":"Musaddiq","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2347","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2015.2444095","article-title":"Internet of things: A survey on enabling technologies, protocols, and applications","volume":"17","author":"Guizani","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.future.2016.10.026","article-title":"Major requirements for building Smart Homes in Smart Cities based on Internet of Things technologies","volume":"76","author":"Hui","year":"2017","journal-title":"Future Gener. Comput. Syst."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1109\/MIE.2017.2649104","article-title":"The Future of Industrial Communication: Automation Networks in the Era of the Internet of Things and Industry 4.0","volume":"11","author":"Wollschlaeger","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2017.1600260","article-title":"Smarter Markets for Smarter Life: Applications, Challenges, and Deployment Experiences","volume":"55","author":"Kim","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2015.2417684","article-title":"An IoT-Aware Architecture for Smart Healthcare Systems","volume":"2","author":"Catarinucci","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2016.01.010","article-title":"State-of-the-art, challenges, and open issues in the integration of Internet of things and cloud computing","volume":"67","author":"Rubio","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2014.06.007","article-title":"Proactive versus reactive routing in low power and lossy networks: Performance analysis and scalability improvements","volume":"23","author":"Tripathi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Alexander, R., Brandt, A., Vasseur, J., Hui, J., Pister, K., Thubert, P., Levis, P., Struik, R., Kelsey, R., and Winter, T. (2012). RPL: IPv6 Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks, Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clausen, T., Yi, J., Niktash, A., Igarashi, Y., Satoh, H., Herberg, U., Lavenu, C., Lys, T., and Dean, J. (2016). The Lightweight on-Demand ad hoc Distance-Vector Routing pRotocol-Next Generation (LOADng), IETF Secretariat. Internet-Draft draft-clausen-lln-loadng-15.txt.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2017.06.025"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Clausen, T., Yi, J., Lavenu, C., Lys, A., Niktash, A., Igarashi, Y., and Satoh, H. (2011). The LLN On-Demand Ad Hoc Distance-Vector Routing Protocol-Next Generation (LOADng), IETF Secretariat. Internet-Draft draft-clausen-lln-loadng-00.txt."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yi, J., Clausen, T., and Igarashi, Y. (2013, January 2\u20134). Evaluation of routing protocol for low power and Lossy Networks: LOADng and RPL. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE Conference on Wireless Sensor (ICWISE), Kuching, Malaysia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICWISE.2013.6728773"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sobral, J.V.V., Rodrigues, J.J.P.C., Saleem, K., and Al-Muhtadi, J. (2016, January 13\u201315). Performance evaluation of LOADng routing protocol in IoT P2P and MP2P applications. Proceedings of the 2016 International Multidisciplinary Conference on Computer and Energy Science (SpliTech), Split, Croatia.","DOI":"10.1109\/SpliTech.2016.7555943"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352421","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/352421","article-title":"Collection Tree Extension of Reactive Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Networks","volume":"10","author":"Yi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Distrib. Sens. Netw."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2018.02.007","article-title":"Improving network lifetime and reliability for machine type communications based on LOADng routing protocol","volume":"73","author":"Sasidharan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.24138\/jcomss.v13i2.376","article-title":"Performance Evaluation of Routing Metrics in the LOADng Routing Protocol","volume":"13","author":"Sobral","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Commun. Softw. Syst."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sobral, J.V.V., Rodrigues, J.J.P.C., and Neto, A. (2017, January 6\u201311). Performance Assessment of the LOADng Routing Protocol in Smart City Scenarios. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE First Summer School on Smart Cities (S3C), Natal, Brazil.","DOI":"10.1109\/S3C.2017.8501394"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/2914792","article-title":"Neighbour-Disjoint Multipath for Low-Power and Lossy Networks","volume":"12","author":"Hossain","year":"2016","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Sen. Netw."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ara\u00fajo, H.d.S., Filho, R.H., Rodrigues, J.J.P.C., Rabelo, R.d.A.L., Sousa, N.d.C., Filho, J.C.C.L.S., and Sobral, J.V.V. (2018). A Proposal for IoT Dynamic Routes Selection Based on Contextual Information. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18020353"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1942","DOI":"10.3390\/s130201942","article-title":"A routing protocol based on energy and link quality for internet of things applications","volume":"13","author":"Machado","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jnca.2016.10.013","article-title":"Enabling IoT interoperability through opportunistic smartphone-based mobile gateways","volume":"81","author":"Aloi","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Netw. Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Javaid, U., Rasheed, T., Meddour, D., and Ahmed, T. (April, January 31). Adaptive Distributed Gateway Discovery in Hybrid Wireless Networks. Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference, Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/WCNC.2008.479"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh, D., and Kim, D. (2010, January 20\u201325). Performance Analysis of Gateway Discovery Techniques: IPv6-Based Wireless Sensor Networks. Proceedings of the 2010 2nd International Conference on Evolving Internet, Valencia, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/INTERNET.2010.47"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Das, S.R., Perkins, C.E., and Belding-Royer, E.M. (2003). Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) Routing, Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).","DOI":"10.17487\/rfc3561"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comnet.2017.06.025","article-title":"Lightweight On-demand Ad hoc Distance-vector Routing - Next Generation (LOADng): Protocol, extension, and applicability","volume":"126","author":"Clausen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Comput. Netw."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yi, J., Clausen, T., and Bas, A. (2012, January 11\u201316). Smart Route Request for on-demand route discovery in constrained environments. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE International Conference on Wireless Information Technology and Systems (ICWITS), Maui, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICWITS.2012.6417755"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Dunkels, A., Gronvall, B., and Voigt, T. (2004, January 16\u201318). Contiki-a lightweight and flexible operating system for tiny networked sensors. Proceedings of the 29th Annual IEEE International Conference on Local Computer Networks, Tampa, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2003.1233531","article-title":"The Node Distribution of the Random Waypoint Mobility Model for Wireless Ad Hoc Networks","volume":"2","author":"Bettstetter","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aschenbruck, N., Ernst, R., Gerhards-Padilla, E., and Schwamborn, M. (2010, January 16\u201318). BonnMotion: A Mobility Scenario Generation and Analysis Tool. Proceedings of the 3rd International ICST Conference on Simulation Tools and Techniques, Malaga, Spain.","DOI":"10.4108\/ICST.SIMUTOOLS2010.8684"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, Y., Shin, H., and Cha, H. (2008, January 22\u201324). Y-MAC: An Energy-Efficient Multi-channel MAC Protocol for Dense Wireless Sensor Networks. Proceedings of the 2008 International Conference on Information Processing in Sensor Networks (IPSN 2008), St. Louis, MO, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPSN.2008.27"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/1\/150\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:23:25Z","timestamp":1760185405000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/1\/150"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,3]]},"references-count":30,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s19010150"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19010150","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,3]]}}}