{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T15:15:19Z","timestamp":1792682119148,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":42,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,14]],"date-time":"2019-01-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1547424000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Different applications require different customizations of silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) technology. We present a review on the latest SiPM technologies developed at Fondazione Bruno Kessler (FBK, Trento), characterized by a peak detection efficiency in the near-UV and customized according to the needs of different applications. Original near-UV sensitive, high-density SiPMs (NUV-HD), optimized for Positron Emission Tomography (PET) application, feature peak photon detection efficiency (PDE) of 63% at 420 nm with a 35 um cell size and a dark count rate (DCR) of 100 kHz\/mm2. Correlated noise probability is around 25% at a PDE of 50% at 420 nm. It provides a coincidence resolving time (CRT) of 100 ps FWHM (full width at half maximum) in the detection of 511 keV photons, when used for the readout of LYSO(Ce) scintillator (Cerium-doped lutetium-yttrium oxyorthosilicate) and down to 75 ps FWHM with LSO(Ce:Ca) scintillator (Cerium and Calcium-doped lutetium oxyorthosilicate). Starting from this technology, we developed three variants, optimized according to different sets of specifications. NUV-HD\u2013LowCT features a 60% reduction of direct crosstalk probability, for applications such as Cherenkov telescope array (CTA). NUV-HD\u2013Cryo was optimized for cryogenic operation and for large photosensitive areas. The reference application, in this case, is the readout of liquid, noble-gases scintillators, such as liquid Argon. Measurements at 77 K showed a remarkably low value of the DCR of a few mHz\/mm2. Finally, vacuum-UV (VUV)-HD features an increased sensitivity to VUV light, aiming at direct detection of photons below 200 nm. PDE in excess of 20% at 175 nm was measured in liquid Xenon. In the paper, we discuss the specifications on the SiPM related to different types of applications, the SiPM design challenges and process optimizations, and the results from the experimental characterization of the different, NUV-sensitive technologies developed at FBK.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19020308","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,14]],"date-time":"2019-01-14T12:20:07Z","timestamp":1547468407000},"page":"308","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":193,"title":["NUV-Sensitive Silicon Photomultiplier Technologies Developed at Fondazione Bruno Kessler"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Alberto","family":"Gola","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Fondazione Bruno Kessler, 38123 Trento, Italy"},{"name":"Trento Institute for Fundamental Physics and Applications, 38123 Trento, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8213-5405","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabio","family":"Acerbi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fondazione Bruno Kessler, 38123 Trento, Italy"},{"name":"Trento Institute for Fundamental Physics and Applications, 38123 Trento, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Massimo","family":"Capasso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fondazione Bruno Kessler, 38123 Trento, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2276-6264","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Marcante","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fondazione Bruno Kessler, 38123 Trento, Italy"},{"name":"Trento Institute for Fundamental Physics and Applications, 38123 Trento, Italy"},{"name":"Department of Physics, University of Trento; 38123 Trento, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7656-7455","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alberto","family":"Mazzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fondazione Bruno Kessler, 38123 Trento, Italy"},{"name":"Trento Institute for Fundamental Physics and Applications, 38123 Trento, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Giovanni","family":"Paternoster","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fondazione Bruno Kessler, 38123 Trento, Italy"},{"name":"Trento Institute for Fundamental Physics and Applications, 38123 Trento, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Claudio","family":"Piemonte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Broadcom Inc., 93049 Regensburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6846-7393","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Veronica","family":"Regazzoni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fondazione Bruno Kessler, 38123 Trento, Italy"},{"name":"Trento Institute for Fundamental Physics and Applications, 38123 Trento, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6650-3925","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicola","family":"Zorzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fondazione Bruno Kessler, 38123 Trento, Italy"},{"name":"Trento Institute for Fundamental Physics and Applications, 38123 Trento, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nima.2014.10.020","article-title":"On the comparison of analog and digital SiPM readout in terms of expected timing performance","volume":"787","author":"Gundacker","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1109\/TED.2016.2516641","article-title":"Performance of NUV-HD silicon photomultiplier technology","volume":"63","author":"Piemonte","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electron Devices"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2018, December 10). Single-element MPPCs (SiPMs). Available online: https:\/\/www.hamamatsu.com\/eu\/en\/product\/optical-sensors\/mppc\/mppc_single\/index.html."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2018, December 10). SiPM. Available online: https:\/\/www.ketek.net\/sipm\/."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2018, December 10). Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPM). Available online: https:\/\/sensl.com\/products\/."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Collazuol, G., Ambrosi, G., Boscardin, M., Corsi, F., Dalla Betta, G.F., Del Guerra, A., Dinu, N., Galimberti, M., Giulietti, D., and Gizzi, L.A. (2007). Single photon timing resolution and detection efficiency of the IRST silicon photo-multipliers. Nucl. Instrum. Meth. Phys. Res. Sect. A.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nima.2007.08.027"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"358","DOI":"10.1109\/TNS.2012.2187927","article-title":"The DLED algorithm for timing measurements on large area SiPMs coupled to scintillators","volume":"59","author":"Gola","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1140\/epjp\/i2018-11973-4","article-title":"DarkSide-20k: A 20 tonne two-phase LAr TPC for direct dark matter detection at LNGS","volume":"133","author":"Aalseth","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. Phys. J. Plus"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1825","DOI":"10.1109\/TNS.2015.2453932","article-title":"Characterization of silicon photomultipliers for nEXO","volume":"62","author":"Ostrovskiy","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nuclphysbps.2017.06.013","article-title":"Development of a SiPM based camera for Cherenkov Telescope Array","volume":"291","author":"Ambrosi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nucl. Part. Phys. Proc."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Adams, J.H., Anchordoqui, L.A., Apple, J.A., Bertaina, M.E., Christl, M.J., Fenu, F., Evgeny, K., Andrii, N., Angela, O., and Paul, T.C. (arXiv, 2017). White paper on EUSO-SPB2, arXiv."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"852","DOI":"10.1109\/JSTQE.2007.902088","article-title":"Progress in silicon single-photon avalanche diodes","volume":"13","author":"Ghioni","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nima.2014.11.079","article-title":"SiPM response to long and intense light pulses","volume":"787","author":"Vinogradov","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2247","DOI":"10.1109\/TNS.2013.2259505","article-title":"New developments of near-UV SiPMs at FBK","volume":"60","author":"Pro","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"P08014","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-0221\/11\/08\/P08014","article-title":"Set-up and methods for SiPM Photo-Detection Efficiency measurements","volume":"11","author":"Acerbi","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"(2018, December 10). LYSO. Available online: https:\/\/www.crystals.saint-gobain.com\/products\/prelude-420-LYSO."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4635","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/60\/12\/4635","article-title":"Sub-100 ps coincidence time resolution for positron emission tomography with LSO: Ce codoped with Ca","volume":"60","author":"Nemallapudi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Piemonte, C., Ferri, A., Gola, A., Picciotto, A., Pro, T., Serra, N., Tarolli, A., and Zorzi, N. (November, January 27). Development of an automatic procedure for the characterization of silicon photomultipliers. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE Nuclear Science Symposium and Medical Imaging Conference (NSS\/MIC), Anaheim, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/NSSMIC.2012.6551141"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1318","DOI":"10.1109\/TNS.2015.2424676","article-title":"NUV silicon photomultipliers with high detection efficiency and reduced delayed correlated-noise","volume":"62","author":"Acerbi","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nima.2016.09.053","article-title":"Characterization of three high efficiency and blue sensitive silicon photomultipliers","volume":"846","author":"Otte","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nima.2006.10.219","article-title":"Modelling a silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) as a signal source for optimum front-end design","volume":"572","author":"Corsi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Vinogradov, S. (2015, January 6\u20139). Perfomance of Silicon Photomultipliers in photon number and time resolution. Proceedings of the International Conference on New Photo-Detectors, Moscow, Russia."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Vinogradov, S., Arodzero, A., and Lanza, R.C. (November, January 27). Performance of X-ray detectors with SiPM readout in cargo accelerator-based inspection systems. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE Nuclear Science Symposium and Medical Imaging Conference (2013 NSS\/MIC), Seoul, Korea."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8381","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.16.008381","article-title":"Optical crosstalk in single photon avalanche diode arrays: A new complete model","volume":"16","author":"Rech","year":"2008","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3615","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/59\/13\/3615","article-title":"SiPM optical crosstalk amplification due to scintillator crystal: Effects on timing performance","volume":"59","author":"Gola","year":"2014","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/59\/4\/869","article-title":"Performance of FBK high-density SiPM technology coupled to Ce: LYSO and Ce: GAGG for TOF-PET","volume":"59","author":"Ferri","year":"2014","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nima.2007.06.038","article-title":"Recent advances and future advances in time-of-flight PET","volume":"580","author":"Moses","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L38","DOI":"10.1088\/0031-9155\/61\/18\/L38","article-title":"Bismuth germanate coupled to near ultraviolet silicon photomultipliers for time-of-flight PET","volume":"61","author":"Kwon","year":"2016","journal-title":"Phys. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1007\/s10686-011-9247-0","article-title":"Design concepts for the Cherenkov Telescope Array CTA: An advanced facility for ground-based high-energy gamma-ray astronomy","volume":"32","author":"Actis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Exp. Astron."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10686-014-9398-x","article-title":"A new solution for mirror coating in \u03b3-ray Cherenkov astronomy","volume":"38","author":"Bonardi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Exp. Astron."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nima.2011.11.086","article-title":"Analytical models of probability distribution and excess noise factor of solid state photomultiplier signals with crosstalk","volume":"695","author":"Vinogradov","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nima.2015.10.064","article-title":"Advances in multi-pixel photon counter technology: First characterization results","volume":"806","author":"Bonanno","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sect. A"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2657","DOI":"10.1109\/TNS.2014.2347576","article-title":"Development of high precision timing counter based on plastic scintillator with SiPM readout","volume":"61","author":"Cattaneo","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1109\/TNS.2017.2774779","article-title":"Development of a novel single-channel, 24 cm 2, SiPM-based, cryogenic photodetector","volume":"65","author":"Galbiati","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physletb.2015.03.012","article-title":"First results from the DarkSide-50 dark matter experiment at Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso","volume":"743","author":"Agnes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Phys. Lett. B"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1109\/TED.2016.2641586","article-title":"Cryogenic characterization of FBK HD near-UV sensitive SiPMs","volume":"64","author":"Acerbi","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electron Devices"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sze, S.M., and Ng, K.K. (2006). Physics of Semiconductor Devices, John Wiley & Sons.","DOI":"10.1002\/0470068329"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nima.2004.07.249","article-title":"The measurements of 2200 ETL9351 type photomultipliers for the Borexino experiment with the photomultiplier testing facility at LNGS","volume":"537","author":"Ianni","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1005","DOI":"10.1109\/TNS.2018.2799325","article-title":"Development of a Very Low-Noise Cryogenic Preamplifier for Large-Area SiPM Devices","volume":"65","author":"Galbiati","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1956","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.35.001956","article-title":"Avalanche photodiodes and quenching circuits for single-photon detection","volume":"35","author":"Cova","year":"1996","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"Jamil, A., Ziegler, T., Hufschmidt, P., Li, G., Lupin-Jimenez, L., Michel, T., Ostrovskiy, I., Retiere, F., Schneider, J., and Albert, J.B. (arXiv, 2018). VUV-sensitive Silicon Photomultipliers for Xenon Scintillation Light Detection in nEXO, arXiv."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102120I","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2261966","article-title":"Ultra-high cell-density silicon photomultipliers with high detection efficiency","volume":"Volume 10212","author":"Acerbi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Advanced Photon Counting Techniques XI"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/2\/308\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:25:48Z","timestamp":1760185548000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/2\/308"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,14]]},"references-count":42,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,1]]}},"alternative-id":["s19020308"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19020308","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,1,14]]}}}