{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T17:42:43Z","timestamp":1778607763189,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,5]],"date-time":"2019-02-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1549324800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Distinguish Young Scholars Program","award":["51325802"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["51325802"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005316","name":"Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["K12018142"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K12018142"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005316","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["51478362"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["51478362"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["51778461"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["51778461"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) has supreme resistance to corrosion and can be designed with optic fibers. FRP can be an alternative to steel reinforcement for concrete structures, and can serve as a sensor for smart concrete structures. Due to poor cracking control and bond performance, the limit of flexural capacity in the serviceability limit state has not been determined, which has obstructed the wider application of FRP bars in smart structures. In this study, in order to overcome these shortcomings, a new engineering cementitious composite (ECC) with superior tensile strain capacity was used to replace the cover around the FRP bars in the tensile zone. To investigate the anti-cracking performance of the new composite beam, seven simply supported beams were designed. In the preliminary investigation, the longitudinal FRP bars in these beams were designed without optic fibers to focus on the mechanical behavior. The beams were tested under four-point load and measured using the digital sensor technique, digital image correlation (DIC). The test results showed that introducing a new ECC layer on the tensile side improves the cracking control and flexural behavior (load capacity and deformability) of a FRP-reinforced sea sand and seawater concrete (SSC) beam, especially in the serviceability limit state. We demonstrate the new composite beam can steadily and fully improve the tensile capacity of FRP bars, which is the basis of using FRP bars as sensors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19030654","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,6]],"date-time":"2019-02-06T03:03:05Z","timestamp":1549422185000},"page":"654","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["Performance Improvement of a Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Bar for a Reinforced Sea Sand and Seawater Concrete Beam in the Serviceability Limit State"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Jiafei","family":"Jiang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jie","family":"Luo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jiangtao","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhichen","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1031","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechmat.2010.09.001","article-title":"Fracture characterization of concrete\/epoxy interface affected by moisture","volume":"42","author":"Lau","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mech. Mater."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2011.11.006","article-title":"Durability characteristics of nano-GFRP composite reinforcing bars for concrete structures in moist and alkaline environments","volume":"94","author":"Won","year":"2012","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"910","DOI":"10.1177\/073168449501400901","article-title":"Experimental Behavior of Concrete Bridge Decks Reinforced with Reinforced Plastic (RP) Rebars","volume":"14","author":"Rao","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Reinf. Plast. Compos."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1177\/1045389X06059954","article-title":"Self-Diagnosis of Hybrid CFRP Rods and As-Strengthened Concrete Structures","volume":"17","author":"Yang","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tang, Y., Wu, Z., Yang, C., Shen, S., Wu, G., and Hong, W. (2009). Development of self-sensing BFRP bars with distributed optic fiber sensors. Smart Sensor Phenomena, Technology, Networks, and Systems, SPIE.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.815767"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7394","DOI":"10.3390\/s140407394","article-title":"Fiber Bragg grating sensors toward structural health monitoring in composite materials: Challenges and Solutions","volume":"14","author":"Damien","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tang, Y., and Wu, Z. (2016). Distributed Long-Gauge Optical Fiber Sensors Based Self-Sensing FRP Bar for Concrete Structure. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16030286"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)1090-0268(2000)4:3(145)","article-title":"Concrete slabs reinforced with FRP grids. Part I: Structural behaviour in one-way bending","volume":"4","author":"Matthys","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Compos. Constr."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/S0950-0618(03)00042-4","article-title":"North american design guidelines for concrete reinforcement and strengthening using FRP: Principles, applications and unresolved issues","volume":"17","author":"Nanni","year":"2003","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1709","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2006.05.021","article-title":"Strength and serviceability performance of beams reinforced with GFRP bars in flexure","volume":"21","author":"Saikia","year":"2007","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"ISIS Canada (2001). Reinforcing Concrete Structures with Fibre Reinforced Polymers (Design Mannual No. 3), ISIS Canada, Intelligent Sensing for Innovative Structures."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2006.08.014","article-title":"Aspects of behaviour of CFRP reinforced concrete beams in bending","volume":"22","author":"Rafi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9445(2005)131:5(752)","article-title":"Reevaluation of deflection prediction for concrete beams reinforced with steel and fiber reinforced polymer bars","volume":"131","author":"Bischoff","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Struct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1016\/S1359-8368(99)00049-9","article-title":"Performance of glass fiber reinforced plastic bars as a reinforcing material for concrete structures","volume":"31","author":"Alsayed","year":"2000","journal-title":"Compos. B Eng."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"ACI Committe 440 (2006). Guide for the Design and Construction of Structural Concrete Reinforced with Frp Bars, ACI Committe 440."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"CSA (2012). Design and Construction of Building Structures with Fibre-Reinforced Polymers (CAN\/CSA8061 S\u2013S2), Canadian Standards Association."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1139\/l01-085","article-title":"Concrete flexural members reinforced with fiber reinforced polymer: De","volume":"29","author":"Newhook","year":"2002","journal-title":"Can. J. Civ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"747","DOI":"10.1177\/0731684415627504","article-title":"Bond stress-slip relationship between basalt fiber-reinforced polymer bars and concrete using a pull-out test","volume":"35","author":"Shen","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Reinf. Plast. Compos."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2017.10.011","article-title":"Structural behavior of GFRP reinforced concrete columns under the influence of chloride at casting and service stages","volume":"136","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Compos. B Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1177\/0731684413520263","article-title":"Bond behavior of sand-coated deformed glass fiber reinforced polymer rebars","volume":"33","author":"Xue","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Reinf. Plast. Comp."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"167","article-title":"Introduction of strain hardening engineered cementitious composites in design of reinforced concrete flexural members for improved durability","volume":"92","author":"Maalej","year":"1995","journal-title":"Struct. J."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Dai, J.G., Wang, B., and Xu, S.L. (2009, January 9\u201311). Textile reinforced engineered cementitious composites (TR-ECC) overlays for the strengthening of RC beams. Proceedings of the Second Official International Conference of International Institute for FRP in Construction for Asia-Pacific Region, Seoul, Korea."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2016.06.073","article-title":"Self-healing capability of large-scale engineered cementitious composites beams","volume":"101","author":"Keskin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Compos. B Eng."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2017.09.005","article-title":"Mechanical properties and self-healing evaluation of strain-hardening cementitious composites with high volumes of hybrid pozzolan materials","volume":"133","author":"Hung","year":"2018","journal-title":"Compos. B Eng."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2018.08.059","article-title":"Tensile behavior of basalt textile grid reinforced Engineering Cementitious Composite","volume":"156","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Compos. B Eng."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"454","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2018.10.026","article-title":"Experimental study on flexural behavior of ECC-concrete composite beams reinforced with FRP bars","volume":"208","author":"Ge","year":"2019","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2017.07.034","article-title":"CFRP-ECC hybrid for strengthening of the concrete structures","volume":"178","author":"Wu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2714","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2011.05.033","article-title":"Evolution and calibration of a numerical model for modelling of hybrid-fibre ECC panels under high-velocity impact","volume":"93","author":"Li","year":"2011","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2014.03.004","article-title":"Tension stiffening in reinforced high performance fiber reinforced cement-based composites","volume":"50","author":"Moreno","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)CC.1943-5614.0000381","article-title":"Flexural behaviors of ECC and concrete\/ECC composite beams reinforced with basalt fiber-reinforced polymer","volume":"17","author":"Yuan","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Compos. Constr."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2017.01.060","article-title":"A strain-hardening cementitious composites with the tensile capacity up to 8%","volume":"137","author":"Yu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2017.10.040","article-title":"Development of ultra-high performance engineered cementitious composites using polyethylene (PE) fibers","volume":"158","author":"Yu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2017.11.034","article-title":"Basic mechanical properties of ultra-high ductility cementitious composites: From 40 Mpa to 120 Mpa","volume":"185","author":"Ding","year":"2018","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cemconcomp.2018.07.016","article-title":"Rate-dependent tensile properties of ultra-high performance engineered cementitious composites (UHP-ECC)","volume":"93","author":"Yu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2018.07.067","article-title":"Experimental study on ultra-high ductility cementitious composites applied to link slabs for jointless bridge decks","volume":"204","author":"Hou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2018.05.037","article-title":"Feasibility of using ultra-high ductility cementitious composites for concrete structures without steel rebar","volume":"170","author":"Yu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"MOHURD (2011). Specification for Mix Proportion Design of Ordinary Concrete (JGJ 55-2011), China Architecture & Building Press. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"JSCE (2008). Recommendations for Design and Construction of High Performance Fiber Reinforced Cement Composite with Multiple Fine Cracks (HPFRCC), Japan Society of Civil Engineers."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"MOHURD (2013). Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastics Rebar for Civil Engineering (JG\/T 406-2013), Stanards Press of China. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"MOHURD, and AQSIQ (2010). Technical Code for Infrastructure Application of FRP Composites (GB50608-2010), China Planning Press. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)CC.1943-5614.0000375","article-title":"Quantification of bond-slip relationship for externally bonded FRP-to-concrete joints","volume":"17","author":"Wu","year":"2013","journal-title":"ASCE J. Compos. Constr."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04014003","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)CC.1943-5614.0000463","article-title":"Plastic hinge length of FRP-confined square RC columns","volume":"18","author":"Jiang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Compos. Constr."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.03.217","article-title":"Effect of defects in externally bonded FRP reinforced concrete","volume":"172","author":"Wan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2017.02.087","article-title":"Effect of aggregate size on stress-strain behavior of concrete confined by fiber composites","volume":"168","author":"Jiang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, Y.-J., Jiang, C., Liu, W., Yu, Q.-Q., and Zhou, Y.-L. (2018). Degradation of the In-plane Shear Modulus of Structural BFRP Laminates Due to High Temperature. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18103361"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"MOHURD, and AQSIQ (2012). Standard for Test Method of Concrete Structures (GB\/T 50152-2012), China Architecture & Building Press. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"79","article-title":"Design recommendations on flexural capacity of FRP-reinforced concrete beams","volume":"26","author":"Xue","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eng. Mech."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"JSCE (1997). Recommendation for Design and Construction of Concrete Structures Using Continuous Fiber Reinforcing Materials, JSCE Research Committee on Continuous Fiber Reinforcing Materials."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"04014036","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)CC.1943-5614.0000491","article-title":"Performance of concrete beams reinforced with basalt FRP for flexure and shear","volume":"19","author":"Tomlinson","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Compos. Constr."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"843","article-title":"Design of FRP reinforced concrete beams for serviceability requirements","volume":"18","author":"Barris","year":"2012","journal-title":"Statyba"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"1077","article-title":"Flexural Behavior and Serviceability of Normal- and High-Strength Concrete Beams Reinforced with Glass Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Bars","volume":"110","author":"Ahmed","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACI Struct. J."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"CSA (2014). Design of Concrete Structures (CAN\/CSA A23.3-14), CSA Group."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2017.06.035","article-title":"Quantification of shear cracking in reinforced concrete beams","volume":"147","author":"Hu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/3\/654\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:31:12Z","timestamp":1760185872000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/3\/654"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,5]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s19030654"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19030654","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,5]]}}}