{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,12]],"date-time":"2026-05-12T12:08:26Z","timestamp":1778587706556,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,10]],"date-time":"2019-02-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1549756800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004052","name":"King Abdullah University of Science and Technology","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["BASELINE"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["BASELINE"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004052","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The stereo-digital image correlation technique using two synchronized industrial-grade cameras has been extensively used for full-field 3D shape, displacement and deformation measurements. However, its use in resource-limited institutions and field settings is inhibited by the need for relatively expensive, bulky and complicated experimental set-ups. To mitigate this problem, we established a cost-effective and ultra-portable smartphone-based stereo-digital image correlation system, which only uses a smartphone and an optical attachment. This optical attachment is composed of four planar mirrors and a 3D-printed mirror support, and can split the incoming scene into two sub-images, simulating a stereovision system using two virtual smartphones. Although such a mirror-based system has already been used for stereo-image correlation, this is the first time it has been combined with a commercial smartphone. This publication explores the potential and limitations of such a configuration. We first verified the effectiveness and accuracy of this system in 3D shape and displacement measurement through shape measurement and in-plane and out-of-plane translation tests. Severe thermal-induced virtual strains (up to 15,000 \u03bc\u03b5) were found in the measured results due to the smartphone heating. The mechanism for the generation of the temperature-dependent errors in this system was clearly and reasonably explained. After a simple preheating process, the smartphone-based system was demonstrated to be accurate in measuring the strain on the surface of a loaded composite specimen, with comparable accuracy to a strain gauge. Measurements of 3D deformation are illustrated by tracking the deformation on the surface of a deflating ball. This cost-effective and ultra-portable smartphone-based system not only greatly decreases the hardware investment in the system construction, but also increases convenience and efficiency of 3D deformation measurements, thus demonstrating a large potential in resource-limited and field settings.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19030719","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,12]],"date-time":"2019-02-12T03:18:20Z","timestamp":1549941500000},"page":"719","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Accurate 3D Shape, Displacement and Deformation Measurement Using a Smartphone"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Liping","family":"Yu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"COHMAS Laboratory, Physical Sciences and Engineering Division (PSE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ran","family":"Tao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"COHMAS Laboratory, Physical Sciences and Engineering Division (PSE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7370-6093","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gilles","family":"Lubineau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"COHMAS Laboratory, Physical Sciences and Engineering Division (PSE), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4652","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.43.004652","article-title":"Three-dimensional deformation measurement from the combination of in-plane and out-of-plane electronic speckle pattern interferometers","volume":"43","author":"Martinez","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. 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