{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,14]],"date-time":"2026-03-14T04:25:55Z","timestamp":1773462355291,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,12]],"date-time":"2019-02-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1549929600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key research and development programs","award":["grant number 2016YFE0202400"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["grant number 2016YFE0202400"]}]},{"name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China during the Thirteenth Five-Year Plan Period","award":["grant number 2016YFC0802002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["grant number 2016YFC0802002"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Smartphones which are built into the suite of sensors, network transmission, data storage, and embedded processing capabilities provide a wide range of response measurement opportunities for structural health monitoring (SHM). The objective of this work was to evaluate and validate the use of smartphones for monitoring damage states in a three-dimensional (3D) steel frame structure subjected to shaking table earthquake excitation. The steel frame is a single-layer structure with four viscous dampers mounted at the beam-column joints to simulate different damage states at their respective locations. The structural acceleration and displacement responses of undamaged and damaged frames were obtained simultaneously by using smartphones and conventional sensors, while the collected response data were compared. Since smartphones can be used to monitor 3D acceleration in a given space and biaxial displacement in a given plane, the acceleration and displacement responses of the Y-axis of the model structure were obtained. Wavelet packet decomposition and relative wavelet entropy (RWE) were employed to analyze the acceleration data to detect damage. The results show that the acceleration responses that were monitored by the smartphones are well matched with the traditional sensors and the errors are generally within 5%. The comparison of the displacement acquired by smartphones and laser displacement sensors is basically good, and error analysis shows that smartphones with a displacement response sampling rate of 30 Hz are more suitable for monitoring structures with low natural frequencies. The damage detection using two kinds of sensors are relatively good. However, the asymmetry of the structure\u2019s spatial stiffness will lead to greater RWE value errors being obtained from the smartphones monitoring data.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19030745","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,13]],"date-time":"2019-02-13T02:49:44Z","timestamp":1550026184000},"page":"745","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Research on Damage Detection of a 3D Steel Frame Model Using Smartphones"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Botao","family":"Xie","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"}]},{"given":"Jinke","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"}]},{"given":"Xuefeng","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Civil Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"},{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Coastal and Offshore Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1177\/1475921710365269","article-title":"Structural Health Monitoring in mainland China: Review and Future Trends","volume":"9","author":"Ou","year":"2010","journal-title":"Struct. Heal. Monit."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"1","article-title":"Structural health monitoring of innovative civil engineering structures in Mainland China","volume":"3","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"Struct. Monit. Maint."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2017.04.022","article-title":"On switching response surface models, with applications to the structural health monitoring of bridges","volume":"98","author":"Worden","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raghavan, A. (2007). Guided-Wave Structural Health Monitoring. [Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Michigan].","DOI":"10.1177\/0583102406075428"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsolstr.2017.10.035","article-title":"Analysis of axis symmetric circular crested elastic wave generated during crack propagation in a plate: A Helmholtz potential technique","volume":"134","author":"Haider","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Solids Struct."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1007\/s13349-018-0270-y","article-title":"Post-earthquake controls and damage detection through structural health monitoring: applications in l\u2019Aquila","volume":"8","author":"Lorenzoni","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Civ. Struct. Heal. Monit."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"93","article-title":"System architecture directions for networked sensors","volume":"23","author":"Hill","year":"2009","journal-title":"Continuum (N. Y)."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.48","article-title":"Smart sensing technology: Opportunities and challenges","volume":"11","author":"Spencer","year":"2004","journal-title":"Struct. Control Heal. Monit."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0000049","article-title":"Long-Term Wireless Structural Health Monitoring of the Ferriby Road Bridge","volume":"15","author":"Hoult","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Bridg. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1002\/stc.1672","article-title":"System identification of a historic swing truss bridge using a wireless sensor network employing orientation correction Soojin","volume":"22","author":"Cho","year":"2015","journal-title":"Struct. Control Heal. Monit."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1080\/10304310802710546","article-title":"Adapting the mobile phone: The iPhone and its consumption","volume":"23","author":"Goggin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Continuum (N. Y)."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lau, S.L., K\u00f6nig, I., David, K., Parandian, B., Carius-D\u00fcssel, C., and Schultz, M. (2010, January 19\u201322). Supporting patient monitoring using activity recognition with a smartphone. Proceedings of the Proceedings of the 2010 7th International Symposium on Wireless Communication Systems (ISWCS\u201910), York, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISWCS.2010.5624490"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1007\/s11036-014-0499-6","article-title":"VCMIA: A novel architecture for integrating vehicular cyber-physical systems and mobile cloud computing","volume":"19","author":"Wan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mob. Networks Appl."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ketabdar, H., and Polzehl, T. (2009, January 25\u201328). Fall and emergency detection with mobile phones. Proceedings of the eleventh international ACM SIGACCESS conference on Computers and accessibility (ASSETS \u201909), Pittsburgh, PA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1639642.1639695"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1109\/TASE.2013.2245121","article-title":"Mobile Phones as Seismologic Sensors: Building the iShake System","volume":"10","author":"Reilly","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Autom. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1193\/091711EQS229M","article-title":"Evaluating the reliability of phones as seismic monitoring instruments","volume":"30","author":"Dashti","year":"2014","journal-title":"Earthq. Spectra"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chun, H.J., Han, Y.D., Park, Y.M., Kim, K.R., Lee, S.J., and Yoon, H.C. (2018). An optical biosensing strategy based on selective light absorption and wavelength filtering from chromogenic reaction. Materials, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma11030388"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, Y., Zhao, X., and Ou, J. (2012, January 15\u201317). A new idea: Mobile structural health monitoring using Smart phones. Proceedings of the ICICIP 2012\u20142012 3rd International Conference on Intelligent Control and Information Processing, Dalian, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICICIP.2012.6391524"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1282","DOI":"10.14778\/2536274.2536296","article-title":"SmartMonitor: using smart devices to perform structural health monitoring","volume":"6","author":"Kotsakos","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. VLDB Endow."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1007\/s13349-012-0025-0","article-title":"The application of smartphones to measuring transient structural displacements","volume":"2","author":"Morgenthal","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Civ. Struct. Heal. Monit."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1145\/2557968.2557972","article-title":"On measuring mechanical oscillations using smartphone sensors: possibilities and limitation","volume":"17","author":"Morgenthal","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACM SIGMOBILE Mob. Comput. Commun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1007\/s11803-014-0259-4","article-title":"Rapid building damage assessment system using mobile phone technology","volume":"13","author":"Cimellaro","year":"2014","journal-title":"Earthq. Eng. Eng. Vib."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"22","article-title":"Smartphone as a Real-time and Participatory Data Collection Tool for Civil Engineers","volume":"2","author":"Sharma","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Mod. Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Akinwande, V., Bello, O.W., and Akinwande, V. (2015, January 20\u201322). Automatic and real-time Pothole detection and Traffic monitoring system using Smartphone Technology Automatic and real-time Pothole detection and Traffic monitoring system using Smartphone Technology. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer Science Research and Innovations (CoSRI 2015), Ibadan, Nigeria."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feng, M., Fukuda, Y., Mizuta, M., and Ozer, E. (2015). Citizen sensors for SHM: Use of accelerometer data from smartphones. Sensors, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/s150202980"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ozer, E., Feng, M.Q., and Feng, D. (2015). Citizen sensors for SHM: Towards a crowdsourcing platform. Sensors, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/s150614591"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1007\/s13349-015-0132-9","article-title":"Portable and convenient cable force measurement using smartphone","volume":"5","author":"Zhao","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Civ. Struct. Heal. Monit."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, X., Yu, Y., Hu, W., Jiao, D., Han, R., Mao, X., Li, M., and Ou, J. (2015, January 9\u201312). Cable force monitoring system of cable stayed bridges using accelerometers inside mobile smart phone. Proceedings of the Sensors and Smart Structures Technologies for Civil, Mechanical, and Aerospace Systems 2015, San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2084068"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2016.05.012","article-title":"Displacement monitoring technique using a smartphone based on the laser projection-sensing method","volume":"246","author":"Zhao","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Peng, D., Zhao, X., Zhao, Q., and Yu, Y. (2015, January 26\u201328). Smartphone based public participant emergency rescue information platform for earthquake zone\u2014\u201cE-Explorer\u201d. Proceedings of the International Conference on Vibroengineering, Nanjing, China."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Min, J., Gelo, N.J., and Jo, H. (2016, January 21\u201324). Real-time Image Processing for Non-contact Monitoring of Dynamic Displacements using Smartphone Technologies. Proceedings of the Sensors and Smart Structures Technologies for Civil, Mechanical, and Aerospace Systems, Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2219418"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105903","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-6501\/aa82ac","article-title":"Hybrid motion sensing and experimental modal analysis using collocated smartphone camera and accelerometers","volume":"28","author":"Ozer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Meas. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1785\/0220170111","article-title":"Structural Health Monitoring of Buildings Using Smartphone Sensors","volume":"89","author":"Kong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Seismol. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/S0141-0296(97)00031-X","article-title":"Lessons learned from the Northridge earthquake","volume":"20","author":"Miller","year":"1998","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1006\/mssp.1996.0003","article-title":"Feature extraction and assessment based on wavelet packet transform","volume":"10","author":"Wu","year":"1996","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2840","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2008.03.013","article-title":"Structural damage identification by using wavelet entropy","volume":"30","author":"Ren","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/S0263-8223(02)00043-0","article-title":"Online detection of crack damage in composite plates using embedded piezoelectric actuators\/sensors and wavelet analysis","volume":"58","author":"Yan","year":"2002","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, L., Wang, C., and Song, G. (2015). Health status monitoring of cuplock scaffold joint connection based on wavelet packet analysis. Shock Vib., 2015.","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/695845"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/3\/745\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:31:29Z","timestamp":1760185889000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/3\/745"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,12]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s19030745"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19030745","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,12]]}}}