{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,23]],"date-time":"2026-07-23T12:22:11Z","timestamp":1784809331417,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":197,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,15]],"date-time":"2019-02-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1550188800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Current glucose monitoring methods for the ever-increasing number of diabetic people around the world are invasive, painful, time-consuming, and a constant burden for the household budget. The non-invasive glucose monitoring technology overcomes these limitations, for which this topic is significantly being researched and represents an exciting and highly sought after market for many companies. This review aims to offer an up-to-date report on the leading technologies for non-invasive (NI) and minimally-invasive (MI) glucose monitoring sensors, devices currently available in the market, regulatory framework for accuracy assessment, new approaches currently under study by representative groups and developers, and algorithm types for signal enhancement and value prediction. The review also discusses the future trend of glucose detection by analyzing the usage of the different bands in the electromagnetic spectrum. The review concludes that the adoption and use of new technologies for glucose detection is unavoidable and closer to become a reality.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19040800","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,17]],"date-time":"2019-02-17T22:11:50Z","timestamp":1550441510000},"page":"800","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":634,"title":["The Progress of Glucose Monitoring\u2014A Review of Invasive to Minimally and Non-Invasive Techniques, Devices and Sensors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7299-6885","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wilbert","family":"Villena Gonzales","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6351-8136","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed","family":"Mobashsher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amin","family":"Abbosh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane 4072, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (WHO) (2018, October 03). Diabetes. Available online: http:\/\/www.who.int\/news-room\/fact-sheets\/detail\/diabetes."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Healthline (2018, October 02). The Effects of Low Blood Sugar on Your Body. Available online: https:\/\/www.healthline.com\/health\/low-blood-sugar-effects-on-body#6."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1962.tb13623.x","article-title":"Electrode systems for continuous monitoring in cardiovascular surgery","volume":"102","author":"Clark","year":"1962","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"45","article-title":"Recent advances in noninvasive glucose monitoring","volume":"5","author":"So","year":"2012","journal-title":"Med. Dev. (Auckl.)"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Bagchi, D., and Nair, S. (2018). Noninvasive Blood Glucose Measurement. Nutritional and Therapeutic Interventions for Diabetes and Metabolic Syndrome, Academic Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2018.02.023","article-title":"IDF Diabetes Atlas: Global estimates of diabetes prevalence for 2017 and projections for 2045","volume":"138","author":"Cho","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12963-018-0166-4","article-title":"Projection of the future diabetes burden in the United States through 2060","volume":"16","author":"Lin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Popul. Health Metr."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5346","DOI":"10.3390\/s100605346","article-title":"A Low Frequency Electromagnetic Sensor for Indirect Measurement of Glucose Concentration: In Vitro Experiments in Different Conductive Solutions","volume":"10","author":"Tura","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, C., Zhao, X.-L., Li, Z.-H., Zhu, Z.-G., Qian, S.-H., and Flewitt, A.J. (2017). Current and Emerging Technology for Continuous Glucose Monitoring. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17010182"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.19080\/CTBEB.2017.06.555696","article-title":"Non-invasive Glucose Monitoring: A Review of Challenges and Recent Advances","volume":"6","author":"Lin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Trends Biomed. Eng. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5032","DOI":"10.1039\/C8CC01678J","article-title":"Challenges and perspectives in continuous glucose monitoring","volume":"54","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chem. Commun."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1093\/clinchem\/45.2.165","article-title":"Spectroscopic and Clinical Aspects of Noninvasive Glucose Measurements","volume":"45","author":"Khalil","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Walker, H.K., Hall, W.D., and Hurst, J.W. (1990). Blood Glucose. Clinical Methods: The History, Physical and Laboratory Examinations, Butterworth-Heinemann. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"YSI Incorporated (2000). YSI 2700 SELECT Biochemistry Analyzer User\u2019s Manual, YSI Incorporated."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"YSI Incorporated (2018, October 04). 2950D Biochemistry Analyzer. Available online: https:\/\/www.ysi.com\/ysi-2950-biochemistry-analyzer."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"(2018, October 04). EKF-Diagnostic GmbH. Biosen C-Line & Biosen S-Line. Available online: https:\/\/www.ekfdiagnostics.com\/res\/BS%20Data%20EN%20EU%205.1-02.17.pdf."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Beckman Coulter (2018, October 04). Chemistry Information Sheet. Available online: https:\/\/www.beckmancoulter.com\/wsrportal\/techdocs?docname=\/cis\/B31851\/%25%25\/EN_GLUH.pdf."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"U.S. Food & Drug Administration\u2014FDA (2018, October 04). Review Memorandum\u2014Quantitative Enzymatic Assay Based on Hexokinase\/G-6-PDH Methodology, Available online: https:\/\/www.accessdata.fda.gov\/cdrh_docs\/reviews\/K060383.pdf."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Roche Diagnostics USA (2018, October 04). Glucose HK Gen.3. Available online: https:\/\/usdiagnostics.roche.com\/products\/05168791190\/PARAM49\/overlay.html."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Volsko, T.A., Chatburn, R.L., and El-Khatib, M.F. (2014). Blood Gas and Critical Care Analyte Analysis. Equipment for Respiratory Care, Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1177\/000456328502200401","article-title":"Measurement of Blood Glucose","volume":"22","author":"Burrin","year":"1985","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1030","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2017.03.009","article-title":"Blood Gas Analyzer Accuracy of Glucose Measurements","volume":"92","author":"Liang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R48","DOI":"10.1186\/cc12567","article-title":"Accuracy of blood-glucose measurements using glucose meters and arterial blood gas analyzers in critically ill adult patients: Systematic review","volume":"17","author":"Inoue","year":"2013","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Dalvi, N. (2013). Glucose meter reference design. Application Note Nr. 1560, Microchip Technology Inc."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1177\/193229681200600228","article-title":"The Accuracy of Point-of-Care Glucose Measurements","volume":"6","author":"Rebel","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"558","DOI":"10.1177\/1932296816672237","article-title":"Comparative Accuracy of 17 Point-of-Care Glucose Meters","volume":"11","author":"Ekhlaspour","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chakraborty, P.P., Patra, S., Bhattacharjee, R., and Chowdhury, S. (2017). Erroneously elevated glucose values due to maltose interference in mutant glucose dehydrogenase pyrroloquinolinequinone (mutant GDH-PQQ) based glucometer. BMJ Case Rep.","DOI":"10.1136\/bcr-2017-219928"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Schultz, D.G. (2019, January 24). FDA Public Health Notification: Potentially Fatal Errors with GDH-PQQ* Glucose Monitoring Technology. Available online: http:\/\/labmed.ucsf.edu\/labmanual\/db\/resource\/FDA_glucometer_warning_Aug_2009.pdf."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Diabetes Australia (2018, October 03). Continuous Glucose Monitoring. Available online: https:\/\/static.diabetesaustralia.com.au\/s\/fileassets\/diabetes-australia\/e2feb45e-ebc4-4133-85e1-b514e67d24de.pdf."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S83","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2008.0122","article-title":"Continuous Glucose Monitoring in Youth with Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"11","author":"Wadwa","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.17925\/USE.2012.08.01.27","article-title":"Continuous Glucose Monitoring Versus Self-monitoring of Blood Glucose in Children with Type 1 Diabetes- Are there Pros and Cons for Both?","volume":"8","author":"Patton","year":"2012","journal-title":"US Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S4","DOI":"10.1177\/0145721710362798","article-title":"Individualizing Care for the Many","volume":"36","author":"Nardacci","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes Educ."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1186\/s40200-015-0172-z","article-title":"Patient perspectives on self-monitoring of blood glucose: perceived recommendations, behaviors and barriers in a clinic sample of adults with type 2 diabetes","volume":"14","author":"Ward","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Metab. Disord."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1631","DOI":"10.2337\/dc17-1600","article-title":"International Consensus on Use of Continuous Glucose Monitoring","volume":"40","author":"Danne","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1177\/1932296816662047","article-title":"Significance and Reliability of MARD for the Accuracy of CGM Systems","volume":"11","author":"Reiterer","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S51","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2017.0050","article-title":"Clinical Implications of Accuracy Measurements of Continuous Glucose Sensors","volume":"19","author":"Bailey","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1177\/193229681000400111","article-title":"Analytical and Clinical Performance of Blood Glucose Monitors","volume":"4","author":"Boren","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"658","DOI":"10.1177\/1932296814539589","article-title":"The Surveillance Error Grid","volume":"8","author":"Klonoff","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/193229681200600101","article-title":"The Need for Clinical Accuracy Guidelines for Blood Glucose Monitors","volume":"6","author":"Klonoff","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.10.5.622","article-title":"Evaluating Clinical Accuracy of Systems for Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose","volume":"10","author":"Clarke","year":"1987","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.23.8.1143","article-title":"A new consensus error grid to evaluate the clinical significance of inaccuracies in the measurement of blood glucose","volume":"23","author":"Parkes","year":"2000","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2018, September 26). International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (2013). ISO 15197:2013. Vitro Diagnostic Test Systems\u2014Requirements for Blood-Glucose Monitoring Systems for Self-Testing in Managing Diabetes Mellitus, International Organization for Standardization (ISO)."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2016.0341","article-title":"Accuracy Evaluation of Four Blood Glucose Monitoring Systems in the Hands of Intended Users and Trained Personnel Based on ISO 15197 Requirements","volume":"19","author":"Freckmann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (2015). International Organization for Standardization (ISO). In vitro diagnostic test systems\u2014Requirements for blood-glucose monitoring systems for self-testing in managing diabetes mellitus (ISO 15197:2013). EN ISO 15197:2015, International Organization for Standardization (ISO)."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"885","DOI":"10.1177\/1932296815580160","article-title":"Analytical Performance Requirements for Systems for Self-Monitoring of Blood Glucose With Focus on System Accuracy: Relevant Differences among ISO 15197:2003, ISO 15197:2013, and Current FDA Recommendations","volume":"9","author":"Freckmann","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"U.S. Food & Drug Administration (FDA) (2016). Blood Glucose Monitoring Test Systems for Prescription Point-of-Care Use."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"U.S. Food & Drug Administration (FDA) (2016). Self-Monitoring Blood Glucose Test Systems for over-the-Counter Use."},{"key":"ref_49","unstructured":"European Commission (2018, September 12). In vitro Diagnostic Medical Devices. Available online: http:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/growth\/single-market\/european-standards\/harmonised-standards\/iv-diagnostic-medical-devices\/#Note%202.1."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Government of Canada (2018, September 12). New Requirements for Medical Device Licence Applications for Lancing Devices and Blood Glucose Monitoring Systems, Available online: https:\/\/www.canada.ca\/en\/health-canada\/services\/drugs-health-products\/medical-devices\/activities\/announcements\/notice-new-requirements-medical-device-licence-applications-lancing-devices-blood-glucose-monitoring-systems.html."},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Ag\u00eancia Nacional de Vigil\u00e2ncia Sanit\u00e1ria (ANVISA) (2018). Instru\u00e7\u00e3o Normativa N\u00ba 24."},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"China Food & Drug Administration (CFDA) (2016). Glucometer Registration Technical Review Guidelines."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency (PMDA) (2018, October 02). Handling of Self-Testing Blood Glucose Meters, Available online: http:\/\/www.std.pmda.go.jp\/stdDB\/Data\/MDStd\/CerStd\/Notif\/K1100009_01_2016_en.pdf."},{"key":"ref_54","unstructured":"Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency (PMDA) (2018). List of Certification Standards."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Department of Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) (2018, October 05). Australian Regulatory Guidelines for Medical Devices (ARGMD), Available online: https:\/\/www.tga.gov.au\/publication\/australian-regulatory-guidelines-medical-devices-argmd."},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Standards Australia (2018, October 05). ISO 15197:2013. Available online: https:\/\/www.standards.org.au\/standards-catalogue\/international\/iso-slash-tc--212\/iso--15197-colon-2013."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Department of Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) (2018, October 05). Medical Devices Regulation: An Introduction, Available online: http:\/\/www.tga.gov.au\/sme-assist\/medical-devices-regulation-introduction."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"MIT (2018, November 23). Carbon Nanotube Sensor Detects Glucose in Saliva. Available online: https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/s\/514456\/carbon-nanotube-sensor-detects-glucose-in-saliva\/."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1712","DOI":"10.3390\/s8031712","article-title":"Carbon Nanotubes Based Glucose Needle-type Biosensor","volume":"8","author":"Jia","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_60","unstructured":"Peng, H., Li, Q., and Chen, T. (2017). Chapter 5\u2013Carbon Nanotubes for Sensing Applications. Industrial Applications of Carbon Nanotubes, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Geddes, C.D., and Lakowicz, J.R. (2006). Plasmonic Glucose Sensing. Glucose Sensing, Springer US.","DOI":"10.1007\/0-387-33015-1"},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"Zhang, W., and Wang, M.L. (2013). Saliva Glucose Monitoring System. U.S. patent."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, D.C., Wu, J.W., Wu, P., Lin, Y., Sun, Y.J., Zhu, R., Yang, J., and Xu, K.X. (2015, January 21\u201325). Glucose measurement using surface plasmon resonance sensor with affinity based surface modification by borate polymer. Proceedings of the 2015 Transducers-2015 18th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems (TRANSDUCERS), Anchorage, AK, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/TRANSDUCERS.2015.7181238"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Srivastava, S.K., Verma, R., and Gupta, B.D. (2012, January 30). Surface plasmon resonance based fiber optic glucose biosensor. Proceedings of the Third Asia Pacific Optical Sensors Conference, Sydney, Australia.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.915978"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5206","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.8.005206","article-title":"Optical surface plasmon resonance sensor modified by mutant glucose\/galactose-binding protein for affinity detection of glucose molecules","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3426","DOI":"10.1039\/c3cs60479a","article-title":"Nanomaterials enhanced surface plasmon resonance for biological and chemical sensing applications","volume":"43","author":"Zeng","year":"2014","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"269","article-title":"Fluorescence-Based Glucose Sensors","volume":"Volume 174","author":"Cunningham","year":"2009","journal-title":"In Vivo Glucose Sensing"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7556","DOI":"10.1021\/ac0511997","article-title":"In Vivo Fluorescence Detection of Glucose Using a Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Optical Sensor:\u2009 Design, Fluorophore Properties, Advantages, and Disadvantages","volume":"77","author":"Barone","year":"2005","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1242","DOI":"10.1177\/193229681200600602","article-title":"Overview of Fluorescence Glucose Sensing: A Technology with a Bright Future","volume":"6","author":"Klonoff","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1177\/193229680900300204","article-title":"Single Walled Carbon Nanotubes as Reporters for the Optical Detection of Glucose","volume":"3","author":"Barone","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, L., Hwang, E., and Zhang, J. (2018). Fluorescent Nanobiosensors for Sensing Glucose. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18051440"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/0925-4005(95)01658-9","article-title":"Fluorescence lifetime-based sensing and imaging","volume":"29","author":"Szmacinski","year":"1995","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1016\/0956-5663(95)96941-Q","article-title":"Sensing oxygen through skin using a red diode laser and fluorescence lifetimes","volume":"10","author":"Bambot","year":"1995","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1006\/abio.2001.5170","article-title":"Evaluation of two synthetic glucose probes for fluorescence-lifetime-based sensing","volume":"294","author":"DiCesare","year":"2001","journal-title":"Anal. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"017002","DOI":"10.1117\/1.3290819","article-title":"Real-time, closed-loop dual-wavelength optical polarimetry for glucose monitoring","volume":"15","author":"Malik","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.1007\/s00417-004-1031-7","article-title":"Non-invasive polarimetric measurement of glucose concentration in the anterior chamber of the eye","volume":"242","author":"Rawer","year":"2004","journal-title":"Graefe\u2019s Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1088\/0034-4885\/66\/2\/204","article-title":"Optical coherence tomography - principles and applications","volume":"66","author":"Fercher","year":"2003","journal-title":"Rep. Prog. Phys."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"035603","DOI":"10.1088\/1612-202X\/aa58c0","article-title":"Noninvasive monitoring of blood glucose concentration in diabetic patients with optical coherence tomography","volume":"14","author":"Lan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Laser Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1080\/10408347.2010.515468","article-title":"A Tutorial on Near Infrared Spectroscopy and Its Calibration","volume":"40","author":"Agelet","year":"2010","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-5214(00)00130-7","article-title":"Comparison of reflectance, interactance and transmission modes of visible-near infrared spectroscopy for measuring internal properties of kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis)","volume":"20","author":"Schaare","year":"2000","journal-title":"Postharvest Biol. Tech."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.postharvbio.2007.06.024","article-title":"Nondestructive measurement of fruit and vegetable quality by means of NIR spectroscopy: A review","volume":"46","author":"Beullens","year":"2007","journal-title":"Postharvest Biol. Tech."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-5491.2008.02642.x","article-title":"Glucose sensors: a review of current and emerging technology","volume":"26","author":"Oliver","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabet. Med."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1366\/000370206776593780","article-title":"New Methodology to Obtain a Calibration Model for Noninvasive Near-Infrared Blood Glucose Monitoring","volume":"60","author":"Maruo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Appl. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"660","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2004.6.660","article-title":"Non-Invasive Glucose Measurement Technologies: An Update from 1999 to the Dawn of the New Millennium","volume":"6","author":"Khalil","year":"2004","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1080\/05704929808002060","article-title":"Vibrational Spectroscopy: Instrumentation for Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy","volume":"33","author":"Coates","year":"1998","journal-title":"Appl. Spectr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diabres.2006.10.027","article-title":"Non-invasive glucose monitoring: Assessment of technologies and devices according to quantitative criteria","volume":"77","author":"Tura","year":"2007","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1083","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.4.001083","article-title":"In vitro measurements of physiological glucose concentrations in biological fluids using mid-infrared light","volume":"4","author":"Liakat","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Exp."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1587","DOI":"10.1093\/clinchem\/45.9.1587","article-title":"Advances in Photoacoustic Noninvasive Glucose Testing","volume":"45","author":"MacKenzie","year":"1999","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2397","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.5.002397","article-title":"Noninvasive in vivo glucose sensing on human subjects using mid-infrared light","volume":"5","author":"Liakat","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Exp."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vibspec.2005.02.025","article-title":"A novel approach to non-invasive glucose measurement by mid-infrared spectroscopy: The combination of quantum cascade lasers (QCL) and photoacoustic detection","volume":"38","author":"Xhelaj","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vib. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_91","first-page":"209","article-title":"Raman spectroscopy\u2013Basic principle, instrumentation and selected applications for the characterization of drugs of abuse","volume":"6","author":"Bumbrah","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eg. J. Forensic Sci."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.saa.2017.05.045","article-title":"Raman and infrared spectroscopy of carbohydrates: A review","volume":"185","author":"Wiercigroch","year":"2017","journal-title":"Spectrochim. Acta Part A Mol. Biomol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_93","unstructured":"Xu, Y., Ford, J.F., Mann, C.K., Vickers, T.J., Brackett, J.M., Cousineau, K.L., and Robey, W.G. (1997). Raman measurement of glucose in bioreactor materials. Proc. SPIE, 2976."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.accounts.6b00472","article-title":"Noninvasive Monitoring of Blood Glucose with Raman Spectroscopy","volume":"50","author":"Pandey","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acc. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"034301","DOI":"10.1063\/1.3314290","article-title":"Instrument for near infrared emission spectroscopic probing of human fingertips in vivo","volume":"81","author":"Chaiken","year":"2010","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_96","unstructured":"Koplik, R. (2018, October 03). Infrared spectroscopy. Available online: https:\/\/web.vscht.cz\/~poustkaj\/EN%20ASFA%20AU%20Koplik_Infrared_spectroscopy.pdf."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alarousu, E., Hast, J.T., Kinnunen, M.T., Kirillin, M.Y., Myllyla, R.A., Plucinski, J., Popov, A.P., Priezzhev, A.V., Prykari, T., and Saarela, J. (2003, January 7\u201310). Noninvasive glucose sensing in scattering media using OCT, PAS, and TOF techniques. Proceedings of the Saratov Fall Meeting 2003: Optical Technologies Biophysics and Medicine V, Saratov, Russia.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.578321"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1007\/s10762-013-0042-z","article-title":"Fundamentals of Measurement in Terahertz Time-Domain Spectroscopy","volume":"35","author":"Withayachumnankul","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. IR Millim. THz Waves"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.1007\/s11141-009-9152-9","article-title":"Terahertz spectroscopy of biological molecules","volume":"52","author":"Cherkasova","year":"2009","journal-title":"Radiophys. Quantum Electron."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1007\/s11082-016-0490-5","article-title":"Noninvasive blood glucose monitoring in the terahertz frequency range","volume":"48","author":"Cherkasova","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Quantum Electron."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gusev, S.I., Guseva, V.A., Simonova, A.A., Demchenko, P.S., Sedykh, E.A., Cherkasova, O.P., and Khodzitsky, M.K. (2017, January 22\u201325). Application of terahertz pulsed spectroscopy for the development of non-invasive glucose measuring method. Proceedings of the 2017 Progress In Electromagnetics Research Symposium-Spring (PIERS), St Petersburg, Russia.","DOI":"10.1109\/PIERS.2017.8262313"},{"key":"ref_102","first-page":"1","article-title":"Measurements of glucose concentration in aqueous solutions using reflected THz radiation for applications to a novel sub-THz radiation non-invasive blood sugar measurement method","volume":"3","author":"Torii","year":"2017","journal-title":"Digit. Health"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2268","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.25.12.2268","article-title":"A novel noninvasive blood glucose monitor","volume":"25","author":"Malchoff","year":"2002","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.20.3.433","article-title":"Noninvasive Blood Glucose Monitoring","volume":"20","author":"Klonoff","year":"1997","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1117\/12.577219","article-title":"Thermal emission spectroscopy as a tool for noninvasive blood glucose measurements","volume":"5566","author":"Buchert","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1894","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2004.036954","article-title":"Noninvasive Measurement of Glucose by Metabolic Heat Conformation Method","volume":"50","author":"Cho","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3335","DOI":"10.3390\/s8053335","article-title":"Non-Invasive Glucose Measurement by Use of Metabolic Heat Conformation Method","volume":"8","author":"Tang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_108","unstructured":"Sandeep, K.V., and Luong, J.H.T. (2016). Point-of-Care Glucose Detection for Diabetic Monitoring and Management, CRC Press. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_109","first-page":"41","article-title":"A Review on Photoacoustic Spectroscopy","volume":"3","author":"Patel","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharm. Erud."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tanaka, Y., Tajima, T., and Seyama, M. (2018, January 19). Differential photoacoustic spectroscopy with continuous wave lasers for non-invasive blood glucose monitoring. Proceedings of the Photons Plus Ultrasound: Imaging and Sensing 2018, San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2287039"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kottmann, J., Rey, J.M., and Sigrist, M.W. (2016). Mid-Infrared Photoacoustic Detection of Glucose in Human Skin: Towards Non-Invasive Diagnostics. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16101663"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-19340-y","article-title":"In vivo Microscopic Photoacoustic Spectroscopy for Non-Invasive Glucose Monitoring Invulnerable to Skin Secretion Products","volume":"8","author":"Sim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"084901","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4816723","article-title":"Windowless ultrasound photoacoustic cell for in vivo mid-IR spectroscopy of human epidermis: Low interference by changes of air pressure, temperature, and humidity caused by skin contact opens the possibility for a non-invasive monitoring of glucose in the interstitial fluid","volume":"84","author":"Pleitez","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nakamura, M., Tajima, T., Ajito, K., and Koizumi, H. (2016, January 22\u201327). Selectivity-enhanced glucose measurement in multicomponent aqueous solution by broadband dielectric spectroscopy. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium (IMS), San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/MWSYM.2016.7540257"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bahar, A.A.M., Zakaria, Z., Isa, A.A.M., Alahnomi, R.A., and Rahman, N.A. (2018, January 19\u201322). Complex Permittivity Measurement Based on Planar Microfluidic Resonator Sensor. Proceedings of the 2018 18th International Symposium on Antenna Technology and Applied Electromagnetics (ANTEM), Waterloo, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/ANTEM.2018.8572934"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.4018\/IJMHCI.2018070102","article-title":"Non-invasive monitoring of glucose level changes utilizing a mm-wave radar system","volume":"10","author":"Shaker","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Mob. Hum. Comput. Interact."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siegel, P.H., Tang, A., Virbila, G., Kim, Y., Chang, M.C.F., and Pikov, V. (2015, January 23\u201328). Compact non-invasive millimeter-wave glucose sensor. Proceedings of the 2015 40th International Conference on Infrared, Millimeter, and Terahertz Waves (IRMMW-THz), Hong Kong, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IRMMW-THz.2015.7327413"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6855","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-06926-1","article-title":"A Glucose Sensing System Based on Transmission Measurements at Millimetre Waves using Micro strip Patch Antennas","volume":"7","author":"Saha","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hofmann, M., Fersch, T., Weigel, R., Fischer, G., and Kissinger, D. (2011, January 30\u201331). A novel approach to non-invasive blood glucose measurement based on RF transmission. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications, Bari, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/MeMeA.2011.5966704"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3016","DOI":"10.1109\/TMTT.2015.2472019","article-title":"Design and In Vitro Interference Test of Microwave Noninvasive Blood Glucose Monitoring Sensor","volume":"63","author":"Choi","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, R., Qu, Z., Jin, H., Liu, S., Luo, Y., and Zheng, Y. (2018, January 27\u201330). Noninvasive Glucose Measurement by Microwave Biosensor with Accuracy Enhancement. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems (ISCAS), Florence, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISCAS.2018.8351711"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"086107","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2968115","article-title":"Microwave dielectric resonator biosensor for aqueous glucose solution","volume":"79","author":"Kim","year":"2008","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yilmaz, T., Brizzi, A., Foster, R., Munoz, M., and Hao, Y. (2014, January 16\u201323). A patch resonator for sensing blood glucose changes. Proceedings of the 2014 XXXIth URSI General Assembly and Scientific Symposium (URSI GASS), Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/URSIGASS.2014.6930125"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1080\/03091900410001720247","article-title":"Non-invasive glycaemia blood measurements by electromagnetic sensor: Study in static and dynamic blood circulation","volume":"29","author":"Gourzi","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Med. Eng. Tech."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medengphy.2011.07.020","article-title":"Non-invasive in vitro sensing of d-glucose in pig blood","volume":"34","author":"Melikyan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Med. Eng. Phys."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1089\/1520915041706018","article-title":"Analysis: PENDRA: The Once and Future Noninvasive Continuous Glucose Monitoring Device?","volume":"6","author":"Weinzimer","year":"2004","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1177\/193229680900300205","article-title":"Noninvasive Glucose Monitoring: A Novel Approach","volume":"3","author":"Gal","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1089\/152091502760306571","article-title":"Ultrasound-Assisted Insulin Delivery and Noninvasive Glucose Sensing","volume":"4","author":"Kost","year":"2002","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.2214\/AJR.07.2671","article-title":"High-Intensity Focused Ultrasound: Current Potential and Oncologic Applications","volume":"190","author":"Dubinsky","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Roentgenol."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1708","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.22.10.1708","article-title":"Correlation of fingerstick blood glucose measurements with GlucoWatch biographer glucose results in young subjects with type 1 diabetes","volume":"22","author":"Garg","year":"1999","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S49","DOI":"10.1002\/dmrr.210","article-title":"Glucose monitoring by reverse iontophoresis","volume":"18","author":"Potts","year":"2002","journal-title":"Diabetes\/Metab. Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1464-5491.2009.02723.x","article-title":"Randomized controlled trial to assess the impact of continuous glucose monitoring on HbA1c in insulin-treated diabetes (MITRE Study)","volume":"26","author":"Cooke","year":"2009","journal-title":"Diabetic Med."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.113.1.108","article-title":"Use of the Cygnus GlucoWatch biographer at a diabetes camp","volume":"113","author":"Gandrud","year":"2004","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-005-1754-y","article-title":"Pendra goes Dutch: lessons for the CE mark in Europe","volume":"48","author":"Wentholt","year":"2005","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_135","unstructured":"MIT Technology Review (2018, October 11). Blood Sugar Crash. Available online: https:\/\/www.technologyreview.com\/s\/529026\/blood-sugar-crash\/."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Segman, Y. (2018). Device and Method for Noninvasive Glucose Assessment. J. Diabetes Sci. Technol., 1\u201310.","DOI":"10.1177\/1932296818763457"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pf\u00fctzner, A., Strobl, S., Demircik, F., Redert, L., Pf\u00fctzner, J., Pf\u00fctzner, A.H., and Lier, A. (2018). Evaluation of a New Noninvasive Glucose Monitoring Device by Means of Standardized Meal Experiments. J. Diabetes Sci. Technol., 1\u20136.","DOI":"10.1177\/1932296818758769"},{"key":"ref_138","unstructured":"Pf\u00fctzner, A. (2017). Evaluation of the CNOGA COMBO GLUCOMETER and the MTX Non-Invasive Body Signaling Device During a Standardized Meal Test in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus and in Healthy Subjects, Pf\u00fctzner Science & Health Institute."},{"key":"ref_139","unstructured":"Segman, Y. (2005). Optical sensor device and image processing unit for measuring chemical concentrations, chemical saturations and biophysical parameters. (US8792948B2), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1177\/193229680700100403","article-title":"Continuous Noninvasive Glucose Monitoring Technology Based on \u201cOcclusion Spectroscopy\u201d","volume":"1","author":"Amir","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_141","unstructured":"Fine, I., and Ma\u2019Ayan, L. (2003). Glucose level control method and system. (US7266400B2), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_142","unstructured":"Eisen, L., Fine, I., and Goldinov, L. (2011). Wearable pulse oximetry device. (US9730622B2), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_143","unstructured":"Offord, C. (2018, October 06). Will the Noninvasive Glucose Monitoring Revolution Ever Arrive?. Available online: https:\/\/www.the-scientist.com\/news-analysis\/will-the-noninvasive-glucose-monitoring-revolution-ever-arrive-30754."},{"key":"ref_144","unstructured":"(2018, October 06). World Global Network. Science behind the HELO. Available online: https:\/\/www.wearablelifestyles.net\/science-behind-the-helo\/."},{"key":"ref_145","unstructured":"Pf\u00fctzner, A., Sachsenheimer, D., Mills, L., Deakin, S., Moore, K., Saini, S., and MacRury, S. (2012). Evaluation of the Non-Invasive Glucose Monitoring Device GlucoTrack in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes and Subjects with Prediabetes, Pf\u00fctzner Science & Health Institute."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"583","DOI":"10.1177\/193229681000400312","article-title":"Noninvasive Glucose Monitoring: Increasing Accuracy by Combination of Multi-Technology and Multi-Sensors","volume":"4","author":"Gal","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_147","unstructured":"MediWise (2018, September 26). GlucoWise. Available online: http:\/\/www.gluco-wise.com\/."},{"key":"ref_148","unstructured":"Nemaura Medical (2018, September 26). Nemaura Announces Positive Results for Its SugarBEAT\u00ae European Clinical Program. Available online: http:\/\/nemauramedical.com\/nemaura-announces-positive-results-sugarbeat-european-clinical-program\/."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"945","DOI":"10.1177\/1932296814536138","article-title":"Accuracy of a Novel Noninvasive Transdermal Continuous Glucose Monitor in Critically Ill Patients","volume":"8","author":"Saur","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hadar, E., Chen, R., Toledano, Y., Tenenbaum-Gavish, K., Atzmon, Y., and Hod, M. (2018). Noninvasive, continuous, real-time glucose measurements compared to reference laboratory venous plasma glucose values. J. Matern. Fetal Neonatal Med., 1\u20138.","DOI":"10.1080\/14767058.2018.1463987"},{"key":"ref_151","unstructured":"Optronics Online (2018, October 08). QST Developed a Non-Invasive Blood Glucose Measurement Technique with a Mid-Infrared Laser. Available online: http:\/\/www.optronics-media.com\/news\/20170822\/47807\/."},{"key":"ref_152","unstructured":"PKvitality (2018, December 12). K\u2019Watch Continuous Glucose Monitoring (CGM) Device. Available online: https:\/\/www.pkvitality.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/11\/PKVITALITY-KWatch-CGM-21112018-EN.pdf."},{"key":"ref_153","unstructured":"PKvitality (2018, January 11). K\u2019Watch Glucose CGM Reinvented. Available online: https:\/\/www.pkvitality.com\/ktrack-glucose\/."},{"key":"ref_154","unstructured":"DeHennis, A., Tankiewicz, S., and Whitehurst, T. (2015). Analyte sensor. (US 9,901,293 B2), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14-OR","DOI":"10.2337\/db18-14-OR","article-title":"A Three-Way Accuracy Comparison of the Dexcom G5, Abbott Freestyle Libre Pro, and Senseonics Eversense CGM Devices in an Outpatient Study of Subjects with Type 1 Diabetes","volume":"67","author":"Jafri","year":"2018","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_156","unstructured":"Senseonics (2019, January 18). Eversense User Guide. Available online: https:\/\/www.eversensediabetes.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/08\/LBL-1602-01-001-Rev-D_Eversense-User-Guide_mgdL_R1-2.pdf."},{"key":"ref_157","unstructured":"Tang, F., You, Z., Wang, X., Li, Y., Yan, Y., and Fan, Z. (2011). Non-Invasive Blood Glucose Detector Based on Metabolic Heat-Optical Method. (CN102293654B), Chinese Patent."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siegel, P.H., Lee, Y., and Pikov, V. (2014, January 14\u201319). Millimeter-wave non-invasive monitoring of glucose in anesthetized rats. Proceedings of the 2014 39th International Conference on Infrared, Millimeter, and Terahertz waves (IRMMW-THz), Tucson, AZ, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IRMMW-THz.2014.6956294"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siegel, P.H., Tang, A., Kim, R., Virbila, G., Chang, F., and Pikov, V. (September, January 27). Noninvasive in vivo millimeter-wave measurements of glucose: First results in human subjects. Proceedings of the 2017 42nd International Conference on Infrared, Millimeter, and Terahertz Waves (IRMMW-THz), Cancun, Mexico.","DOI":"10.1109\/IRMMW-THz.2017.8067035"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2016.12.044","article-title":"Nanostructured biosensor for detecting glucose in tear by applying fluorescence resonance energy transfer quenching mechanism","volume":"91","author":"Chen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectr."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.artmed.2011.05.001","article-title":"Non-invasive estimate of blood glucose and blood pressure from a photoplethysmograph by means of machine learning techniques","volume":"53","year":"2011","journal-title":"Artif. Intell. Med."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Philip, L.A., Rajasekaran, K., and Jothi, E.S.J. (2017, January 3\u20134). Continous monitoring of blood glucose using photophlythesmograph signal. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Innovations in Electrical, Electronics, Instrumentation and Media Technology (ICEEIMT), Coimbatore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIEEIMT.2017.8116832"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.7.000701","article-title":"Hollow optical-fiber based infrared spectroscopy for measurement of blood glucose level by using multi-reflection prism","volume":"7","author":"Kino","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Exp."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lundsgaard-Nielsen, S.M., Pors, A., Banke, S.O., Henriksen, J.E., Hepp, D.K., and Weber, A. (2018). Critical-depth Raman spectroscopy enables home-use non-invasive glucose monitoring. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0197134"},{"key":"ref_165","first-page":"1","article-title":"Noninvasive measurement of glucose concentration on human fingertip by optical coherence tomography","volume":"23","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2195","DOI":"10.1109\/TMTT.2013.2250516","article-title":"Microwave-Based Noninvasive Concentration Measurements for Biomedical Applications","volume":"61","author":"Hofmann","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Microw. Theory Tech."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, H., Luzio, S., Beutler, J., and Porch, A. (2017, January 4\u20139). Microwave noninvasive blood glucose monitoring sensor: Human clinical trial results. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium (IMS), Honolulu, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/MWSYM.2017.8058721"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1038\/s41565-018-0112-4","article-title":"Non-invasive, transdermal, path-selective and specific glucose monitoring via a graphene-based platform","volume":"13","author":"Lipani","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Nanotechnol."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vega, K., Jiang, N., Liu, X., Kan, V., Barry, N., Maes, P., Yetisen, A., and Paradiso, J. (2017, January 11\u201315). The dermal abyss: interfacing with the skin by tattooing biosensors. Proceedings of the 2017 ACM International Symposium on Wearable Computers (ISWC\u201917), Maui, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3123021.3123039"},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, J., Kim, J., Kim, S.-Y., Cheong, W.H., Jang, J., Park, Y.-G., Na, K., Kim, Y.-T., Heo, J.H., and Lee, C.Y. (2018). Soft, smart contact lenses with integrations of wireless circuits, glucose sensors, and displays. Sci. Adv., 4.","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.aap9841"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"057005","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.23.5.057005","article-title":"Glucose-sensitive silicone hydrogel contact lens toward tear glucose monitoring","volume":"23","author":"Badugu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1007\/s10544-018-0349-6","article-title":"Real-time intradermal continuous glucose monitoring using a minimally invasive microneedle-based system","volume":"20","author":"Ribet","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Microdevices"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9067","DOI":"10.1021\/la0617053","article-title":"Continuous Glucose Detection Using Boronic Acid-Substituted Viologens in Fluorescent Hydrogels:\u2009 Linker Effects and Extension to Fiber Optics","volume":"22","author":"Gamsey","year":"2006","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_174","unstructured":"Gamsey, S., Bernat, V., Kutyavin, A., Clary, J.W., and Pradhan, S. (2016). Near-IR glucose sensors. (US20180179233A1), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2263","DOI":"10.2337\/diacare.25.12.2263","article-title":"Noninvasive Blood Glucose Monitoring With Optical Coherence Tomography","volume":"25","author":"Larin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Diabetes Care"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"624","DOI":"10.1177\/193229680700100505","article-title":"Hypoglycemia Detection and Prediction Using Continuous Glucose Monitoring\u2014A Study on Hypoglycemic Clamp Data","volume":"1","author":"Palerm","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Techol."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2013.0041","article-title":"A Multistep Algorithm for Processing and Calibration of Microdialysis Continuous Glucose Monitoring Data","volume":"15","author":"Mahmoudi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Facchinetti, A. (2016). Continuous Glucose Monitoring Sensors: Past, Present and Future Algorithmic Challenges. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16122093"},{"key":"ref_179","first-page":"74","article-title":"A Multiple Local Models Approach to Accuracy Improvement in Continuous Glucose Monitoring","volume":"14","author":"Bondia","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1697","DOI":"10.1109\/JBHI.2014.2341703","article-title":"LMI-Based Approaches for the Calibration of Continuous Glucose Measurement Sensors","volume":"19","author":"Kirchsteiger","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE J. Biomed. Health Inf."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S160","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-8227(06)70023-7","article-title":"Continuous glucose monitoring and hypo\/hyperglycaemia prediction","volume":"74","author":"Sparacino","year":"2006","journal-title":"Diabetes Res. Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1177\/193229680700100405","article-title":"Predictive Monitoring for Improved Management of Glucose Levels","volume":"1","author":"Reifman","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1089\/dia.2009.0076","article-title":"Artificial Neural Network Algorithm for Online Glucose Prediction from Continuous Glucose Monitoring","volume":"12","author":"Facchinetti","year":"2010","journal-title":"Diabetes Technol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zanon, M., Sparacino, G., Facchinetti, A., Talary, S.M., Mueller, M., Caduff, A., and Cobelli, C. (2013). Non-Invasive Continuous Glucose Monitoring with Multi-Sensor Systems: A Monte Carlo-Based Methodology for Assessing Calibration Robustness. Sensors, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/s130607279"},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eadie, M., and Steele, R. (2017, January 19\u201323). Non-invasive Blood Glucose Monitoring and Data Analytics. Proceedings of the ICCDA\u201917, Lakeland, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3093241.3093283"},{"key":"ref_186","unstructured":"Sandham, W., Nikoletou, D., Hamilton, D., Paterson, K., Japp, A., and Macgregor, C. (1998, January 8\u201311). Blood glucose prediction for diabetes therapy using a recurrent artificial neural network. Proceedings of the EUSIPCO, Rhodes, Greece."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1204","DOI":"10.1109\/72.788659","article-title":"Neural-network models for the blood glucose metabolism of a diabetic","volume":"10","author":"Tresp","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Neural Netw."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mougiakakou, S.G., Prountzou, K., and Nikita, K.S. (2006, January 17\u201318). A Real Time Simulation Model of Glucose-Insulin Metabolism for Type 1 Diabetes Patients. Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology 27th Annual Conference, Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMBS.2005.1616403"},{"key":"ref_189","unstructured":"Smith, J. (2018, December 14). Available online: https:\/\/www.researchgate.net\/publication\/317267760_The_Pursuit_of_Noninvasive_Glucose_5th_Edition."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1177\/193229681100500227","article-title":"Noninvasive polarimetric-based glucose monitoring: an in vivo study","volume":"5","author":"Purvinis","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Diabetes Sci. Techol."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2719","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.50.002719","article-title":"Optical polarimetry for noninvasive glucose sensing enabled by Sagnac interferometry","volume":"50","author":"Winkler","year":"2011","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2010.12.042","article-title":"A contact lens with embedded sensor for monitoring tear glucose level","volume":"26","author":"Yao","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"960","DOI":"10.1016\/j.talanta.2010.10.055","article-title":"Soft contact lens biosensor for in situ monitoring of tear glucose as non-invasive blood sugar assessment","volume":"83","author":"Chu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_194","unstructured":"Zhang, J., and Hodge, W.G. (2008). Contact lens integrated with a biosensor for the detection of glucose and other components in tears. (US8385998B2), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruan, J.-L., Chen, C., Shen, J.-H., Zhao, X.-L., Qian, S.-H., and Zhu, Z.-G. (2017). A Gelated Colloidal Crystal Attached Lens for Noninvasive Continuous Monitoring of Tear Glucose. Polymers, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym9040125"},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5452","DOI":"10.1021\/acsnano.8b00829","article-title":"Wearable Contact Lens Biosensors for Continuous Glucose Monitoring Using Smartphones","volume":"12","author":"Elsherif","year":"2018","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tseng, R.C., Chen, C.-C., Hsu, S.-M., and Chuang, H.-S. (2018). Contact-Lens Biosensors. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18082651"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/4\/800\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:32:30Z","timestamp":1760185950000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/4\/800"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,15]]},"references-count":197,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s19040800"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19040800","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,15]]}}}