{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,24]],"date-time":"2026-04-24T03:43:30Z","timestamp":1777002210140,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,22]],"date-time":"2019-02-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1550793600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000009","name":"Foundation for the National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R21CA176684"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R21CA176684"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000009","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000009","name":"Foundation for the National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01CA156775"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01CA156775"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000009","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000009","name":"Foundation for the National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01CA204254"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01CA204254"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000009","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000009","name":"Foundation for the National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01HL140325"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01HL140325"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000009","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007757","name":"Agencia Canaria de Investigaci\u00f3n, Innovaci\u00f3n y Sociedad de la Informaci\u00f3n","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["ProID2017010164"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["ProID2017010164"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007757","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007757","name":"Agencia Canaria de Investigaci\u00f3n, Innovaci\u00f3n y Sociedad de la Informaci\u00f3n","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["POC 2014-2020, Eje 3 Tema Prioritario 74 (85%)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["POC 2014-2020, Eje 3 Tema Prioritario 74 (85%)"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007757","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Seventh Framework Programme","award":["618080"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["618080"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100010198","name":"Ministerio de Econom\u00eda, Industria y Competitividad, Gobierno de Espa\u00f1a","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["TEC2017-86722-C4-1-R"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["TEC2017-86722-C4-1-R"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100010198","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006368","name":"Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2016 PhD Training Program for Research Staff"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2016 PhD Training Program for Research Staff"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006368","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The main goal of brain cancer surgery is to perform an accurate resection of the tumor, preserving as much normal brain tissue as possible for the patient. The development of a non-contact and label-free method to provide reliable support for tumor resection in real-time during neurosurgical procedures is a current clinical need. Hyperspectral imaging is a non-contact, non-ionizing, and label-free imaging modality that can assist surgeons during this challenging task without using any contrast agent. In this work, we present a deep learning-based framework for processing hyperspectral images of in vivo human brain tissue. The proposed framework was evaluated by our human image database, which includes 26 in vivo hyperspectral cubes from 16 different patients, among which 258,810 pixels were labeled. The proposed framework is able to generate a thematic map where the parenchymal area of the brain is delineated and the location of the tumor is identified, providing guidance to the operating surgeon for a successful and precise tumor resection. The deep learning pipeline achieves an overall accuracy of 80% for multiclass classification, improving the results obtained with traditional support vector machine (SVM)-based approaches. In addition, an aid visualization system is presented, where the final thematic map can be adjusted by the operating surgeon to find the optimal classification threshold for the current situation during the surgical procedure.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19040920","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,22]],"date-time":"2019-02-22T03:49:44Z","timestamp":1550807384000},"page":"920","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":154,"title":["Deep Learning-Based Framework for In Vivo Identification of Glioblastoma Tumor using Hyperspectral Images of Human Brain"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9794-490X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Himar","family":"Fabelo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, 800 W. Campbell Road, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"},{"name":"Institute for Applied Microelectronics (IUMA), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC), 35017 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Martin","family":"Halicek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, 800 W. Campbell Road, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"},{"name":"Department of Biomedical Engineering, Emory University and Georgia Institute of Technology, 1841 Clifton Road NE, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7519-954X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samuel","family":"Ortega","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Applied Microelectronics (IUMA), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC), 35017 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Maysam","family":"Shahedi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, 800 W. Campbell Road, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Adam","family":"Szolna","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Doctor Negrin of Gran Canaria, Barranco de la Ballena s\/n, 35010 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Juan","family":"Pi\u00f1eiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Doctor Negrin of Gran Canaria, Barranco de la Ballena s\/n, 35010 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Coralia","family":"Sosa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Doctor Negrin of Gran Canaria, Barranco de la Ballena s\/n, 35010 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Aruma","family":"O\u2019Shanahan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Doctor Negrin of Gran Canaria, Barranco de la Ballena s\/n, 35010 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Sara","family":"Bisshopp","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Doctor Negrin of Gran Canaria, Barranco de la Ballena s\/n, 35010 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Carlos","family":"Espino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Doctor Negrin of Gran Canaria, Barranco de la Ballena s\/n, 35010 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mariano","family":"M\u00e1rquez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Doctor Negrin of Gran Canaria, Barranco de la Ballena s\/n, 35010 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mar\u00eda","family":"Hern\u00e1ndez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Doctor Negrin of Gran Canaria, Barranco de la Ballena s\/n, 35010 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Carrera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Doctor Negrin of Gran Canaria, Barranco de la Ballena s\/n, 35010 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jes\u00fas","family":"Morera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Doctor Negrin of Gran Canaria, Barranco de la Ballena s\/n, 35010 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3784-5504","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gustavo","family":"Callico","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Applied Microelectronics (IUMA), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC), 35017 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Roberto","family":"Sarmiento","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Applied Microelectronics (IUMA), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC), 35017 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9123-9484","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Baowei","family":"Fei","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, The University of Texas at Dallas, 800 W. Campbell Road, Richardson, TX 75080, USA"},{"name":"Advanced Imaging Research Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hine Blvd, Dallas, TX 75390, USA"},{"name":"Department of Radiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hine Blvd, Dallas, TX 75390, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.3322\/caac.21332","article-title":"Cancer statistics","volume":"66","author":"Siegel","year":"2016","journal-title":"CA Cancer J. Clin."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cancergen.2012.10.009","article-title":"Genetics of adult glioma","volume":"205","author":"Goodenberger","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cancer Genet."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.3322\/caac.20069","article-title":"Exciting New Advances in Neuro-Oncology: The Avenue to a Cure for Malignant Glioma","volume":"60","author":"Hadjipanayis","year":"2010","journal-title":"CA Cancer J. Clin."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.3171\/2011.2.JNS10998","article-title":"An extent of resection threshold for newly diagnosed glioblastomas","volume":"115","author":"Sanai","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1227\/01.neu.0000318159.21731.cf","article-title":"Glioma extent of resection and its impact on patient outcome","volume":"62","author":"Sanai","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neurosurgery"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"478","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nurt.2009.04.005","article-title":"Operative Techniques for Gliomas and the Value of Extent of Resection","volume":"6","author":"Sanai","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1007\/s11060-012-0983-4","article-title":"Failure pattern following complete resection plus radiotherapy and temozolomide is at the resection margin in patients with glioblastoma","volume":"111","author":"Petrecca","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurooncol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1338","DOI":"10.1200\/JCO.2007.13.9337","article-title":"Role of Extent of Resection in the Long-Term Outcome of Low-Grade Hemispheric Gliomas","volume":"26","author":"Smith","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1016\/j.media.2016.08.007","article-title":"Brain shift in neuronavigation of brain tumors: A review","volume":"35","author":"Gerard","year":"2017","journal-title":"Med. Image Anal."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1007\/s11060-014-1536-9","article-title":"Raman molecular imaging of brain frozen tissue sections","volume":"120","author":"Kast","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurooncol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1007\/s00701-003-0204-1","article-title":"Course of brain shift during microsurgical resection of supratentorial cerebral lesions: Limits of conventional neuronavigation","volume":"146","author":"Reinges","year":"2004","journal-title":"Acta Neurochir. (Wien)"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1016\/S0090-3019(01)00628-0","article-title":"Intraoperative compensation for brain shift","volume":"56","author":"Nimsky","year":"2001","journal-title":"Surg. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.4103\/ija.IJA_29_18","article-title":"Intraoperative magnetic resonance imaging for neurosurgery\u2014An anaesthesiologist\u2019s challenge","volume":"62","author":"Gandhe","year":"2018","journal-title":"Indian J. Anaesth."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"392","DOI":"10.1016\/S1470-2045(06)70665-9","article-title":"Fluorescence-guided surgery with 5-aminolevulinic acid for resection of malignant glioma: A randomised controlled multicentre phase III trial","volume":"7","author":"Stummer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Lancet Oncol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1007\/s00259-010-1690-z","article-title":"Comparison of 18F-FET PET and 5-ALA fluorescence in cerebral gliomas","volume":"38","author":"Floeth","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Nucl. Med. Mol. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wolfe, W.L. (1997). Introduction to Imaging Spectrometers, SPIE.","DOI":"10.1117\/3.263530"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10901","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.19.1.010901","article-title":"Medical hyperspectral imaging: A review","volume":"19","author":"Lu","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100901","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.18.10.100901","article-title":"Review of spectral imaging technology in biomedical engineering: Achievements and challenges","volume":"18","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2011","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2010.2049110","article-title":"Detection and analysis of the intestinal ischemia using visible and invisible hyperspectral imaging","volume":"57","author":"Akbari","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fabelo, H., Ortega, S., Lazcano, R., Madro\u00f1al, D., Callic\u00f3, G.M., Ju\u00e1rez, E., Salvador, R., Bulters, D., Bulstrode, H., and Szolna, A. (2018). An intraoperative visualization system using hyperspectral imaging to aid in brain tumor delineation. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18020430"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kamruzzaman, M., and Sun, D.-W. (2016). Introduction to Hyperspectral Imaging Technology. Comput. Vis. Technol. Food Qual. Eval., 111\u2013139.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-802232-0.00005-0"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.5721\/EuJRS20144723","article-title":"A review of remote sensing image classification techniques: The role of Spatio-contextual information","volume":"47","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur. J. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2012.2197589","article-title":"Advances in spectral-spatial classification of hyperspectral images","volume":"101","author":"Fauvel","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2016.12.008","article-title":"Automatic selection of molecular descriptors using random forest: Application to drug discovery","volume":"72","author":"Cano","year":"2017","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpba.2009.08.022","article-title":"Near-infrared chemical imaging (NIR-CI) for counterfeit drug identification: A four-stage concept with a novel approach of data processing (Linear Image Signature)","volume":"51","author":"Puchert","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1039","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2011.651542","article-title":"Application of Hyperspectral Imaging in Food Safety Inspection and Control: A Review","volume":"52","author":"Feng","year":"2012","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2007.06.001","article-title":"Hyperspectral imaging-an emerging process analytical tool for food quality and safety control","volume":"18","author":"Gowen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ifset.2013.04.014","article-title":"Advanced applications of hyperspectral imaging technology for food quality and safety analysis and assessment: A review\u2014Part I: Fundamentals","volume":"19","author":"Wu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.1007\/s11947-011-0725-1","article-title":"Recent Advances and Applications of Hyperspectral Imaging for Fruit and Vegetable Quality Assessment","volume":"5","author":"Lorente","year":"2011","journal-title":"Food Bioprocess Technol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Montembeault, Y., Lagueux, P., Farley, V., Villemaire, A., and Gross, K.C. (2010, January 14\u201316). Hyper-Cam: Hyperspectral IR imaging applications in defence innovative research. Proceedings of the 2010 2nd Workshop on Hyperspectral Image and Signal Processing: Evolution in Remote Sensing, Reykjavik, Iceland.","DOI":"10.1109\/WHISPERS.2010.5594890"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1179\/174313110X12771950995716","article-title":"An introduction to hyperspectral imaging and its application for security, surveillance and target acquisition","volume":"58","author":"Yuen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Imaging Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Freeman, J., Downs, F., Marcucci, L., Lewis, E.N., Blume, B., and Rish, J. (November, January 30). Multispectral and hyperspectral imaging: Applications for medical and surgical diagnostics. Proceedings of the 19th Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, Chicago, IL, USA."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parker, M.F., Karins, J.P., and O\u2019Connor, D.M. (1998). Hyperspectral Diagnostic Imaging of the Cervix: Initial Observations. Med. Technol. Symp., 144\u2013148.","DOI":"10.1109\/PACMED.1998.767958"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zuzak, K.J., Schaeberle, M.D., Levin, I.W., Lewis, N.E., Freeman, J., McNeil, J.D., and Cancio, L.C. (1999, January 13\u201316). Visible and infrared hyperspectral visualization of normal and ischemic tissue. Proceedings of the First Joint BMES\/EMBS Conference. 1999 IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology 21st Annual Conference and the 1999 Annual Fall Meeting of the Biomedical Engineering Society, Atlanta, GA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IEMBS.1999.804280"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1080\/05704928.2013.838678","article-title":"Hyperspectral imaging in the medical field: Present and future","volume":"49","author":"Calin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Spectrosc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.22.8.086009","article-title":"Label-free reflectance hyperspectral imaging for tumor margin assessment: A pilot study on surgical specimens of cancer patients","volume":"22","author":"Fei","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, G., Wang, D., Qin, X., Muller, S., Wang, X., Chen, A.Y., Chen, Z.G., and Fei, B. (2018). Detection and delineation of squamous neoplasia with hyperspectral imaging in a mouse model of tongue carcinogenesis. J. Biophotonics, 11.","DOI":"10.1002\/jbio.201700078"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fabelo, H., Ortega, S., Ravi, D., Kiran, B.R., Sosa, C., Bulters, D., Callic\u00f3, G.M., Bulstrode, H., Szolna, A., and Pi\u00f1eiro, J.F. (2018). Spatio-spectral classification of hyperspectral images for brain cancer detection during surgical operations. PLoS ONE, 13.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0193721"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"0760051","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.17.7.076005","article-title":"Hyperspectral imaging and quantitative analysis for prostate cancer detection","volume":"17","author":"Akbari","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5426","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-17-0906","article-title":"Detection of head and neck cancer in surgical specimens using quantitative hyperspectral imaging","volume":"23","author":"Lu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2015.2468578","article-title":"A Minimum Spanning Forest-Based Method for Noninvasive Cancer Detection With Hyperspectral Imaging","volume":"63","author":"Pike","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106004","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.19.10.106004","article-title":"Spectral-spatial classification for noninvasive cancer detection using hyperspectral imaging","volume":"19","author":"Lu","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126012","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.20.12.126012","article-title":"Framework for hyperspectral image processing and quantification for cancer detection during animal tumor surgery","volume":"20","author":"Lu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"060503","DOI":"10.1117\/1.JBO.22.6.060503","article-title":"Deep convolutional neural networks for classifying head and neck cancer using hyperspectral imaging","volume":"22","author":"Halicek","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Opt."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1777","DOI":"10.1117\/1.1766301","article-title":"New hyperspectral discrimination measure for spectral characterization","volume":"43","author":"Chang","year":"2004","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Abadi, M., Barham, P., Chen, J., Chen, Z., Davis, A., Dean, J., Devin, M., Ghemawat, S., Irving, G., and Isard, M. (2016, January 2\u20134). TensorFlow: A System for Large-Scale Machine Learning TensorFlow: A system for large-scale machine learning. Proceedings of the 12th USENIX Symposium on Operating Systems Design and Implementation (OSDI \u201916), Savannah, GA, USA."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Krizhevsky, A., and Hinton, G.E. (2012). ImageNet Classification with Deep Convolutional Neural Networks. Neural Inf. Process. Syst., 1097\u20131105."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.8.000078","article-title":"Quantitative assessment of hemodynamic and structural characteristics of in vivo brain tissue using total diffuse reflectance spectrum measured in a non-contact fashion","volume":"8","author":"Song","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1452","DOI":"10.1046\/j.0022-202x.2001.01577.x","article-title":"Skin Melanin, Hemoglobin, and Light Scattering Properties can be Quantitatively Assessed In Vivo Using Diffuse Reflectance Spectroscopy","volume":"117","author":"Zonios","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.1.000310","article-title":"Assessing hemoglobin concentration using spectroscopic optical coherence tomography for feasibility of tissue diagnostics","volume":"1","author":"Robles","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biomed. Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Gonzalez, R.C., and Woods, R.E. (2008). Digital Image Processing, Pearson."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ronneberger, O., Fischer, P., and Brox, T. (2015). U-Net: Convolutional Networks for Biomedical Image Segmentation. Miccai, 234\u2013341.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-24574-4_28"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s11220-015-0126-z","article-title":"Spectral\u2013Spatial Hyperspectral Image Classification Based on KNN","volume":"17","author":"Huang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sens. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/1961189.1961199","article-title":"LIBSVM: A Library for Support Vector Machines","volume":"2","author":"Chang","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Intell. Syst. Technol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.4103\/0301-4738.37595","article-title":"Understanding and using sensitivity, specificity and predictive values","volume":"56","author":"Parikh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Indian J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3915","DOI":"10.1021\/ac0101306","article-title":"Determination of Water Concentration in Brain Tissue by Raman Spectroscopy","volume":"73","author":"Wolthuis","year":"2001","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2419","DOI":"10.1021\/ac504362y","article-title":"Discrimination between Oral Cancer and Healthy Tissue Based on Water Content Determined by Raman Spectroscopy","volume":"87","author":"Barroso","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S2","DOI":"10.1188\/16.CJON.S1.2-8","article-title":"Glioblastoma: Overview of Disease and Treatment","volume":"20","author":"Davis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. J. Oncol. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"266","DOI":"10.4103\/1793-5482.162685","article-title":"Multiple glioblastomas: Are they different from their solitary counterparts?","volume":"10","author":"Singh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Asian J. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1007\/s11060-012-1030-1","article-title":"The incidence and significance of multiple lesions in glioblastoma","volume":"112","author":"Thomas","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurooncol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/4\/920\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:34:01Z","timestamp":1760186041000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/4\/920"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,22]]},"references-count":60,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s19040920"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19040920","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,22]]}}}