{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T03:35:30Z","timestamp":1760240130682,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":32,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,24]],"date-time":"2019-02-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1550966400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004543","name":"China Scholarship Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["201706120130"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["201706120130"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004543","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["51677043"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["51677043"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper presents a new sensor based on a radial field bulk piezoelectric diaphragm to provide energy-efficient and high-performance situational sensing for autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs). This sensor is self-powered, does not need an external power supply, and works efficiently in d33 mode by using inter-circulating electrodes to release the radial in-plane poling. Finite element analysis was conducted to estimate the sensor behavior. Sensor prototypes were fabricated by microfabrication technology. The dynamic behaviors of the piezoelectric diaphragm were examined by the impedance spectrum. By imitating the underwater disturbance and generating the oscillatory flow velocities with a vibrating sphere, the performance of the sensor in detecting the oscillatory flow was tested. Experimental results show that the sensitivity of the sensor is up to 1.16 mV\/(mm\/s), and the detectable oscillatory flow velocity is as low as 4 mm\/s. Further, this sensor can work well under a disturbance with low frequency. The present work provides a good application prospect for the underwater sensing of AUVs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19040962","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,25]],"date-time":"2019-02-25T03:06:52Z","timestamp":1551064012000},"page":"962","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["A New Self-Powered Sensor Using the Radial Field Piezoelectric Diaphragm in d33 Mode for Detecting Underwater Disturbances"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Xingxu","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Robotics and System, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"},{"name":"School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 639798, Singapore"}]},{"given":"Xiaobiao","family":"Shan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Robotics and System, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"}]},{"given":"Zhiyuan","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, BS8 1QU, UK"}]},{"given":"Tao","family":"Xie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Robotics and System, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"}]},{"given":"Jianmin","family":"Miao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 639798, Singapore"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Griffiths, G. (2002). Technology and Applications of Autonomous Underwater Vehicles, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9780203522301"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1109\/JOE.2013.2278891","article-title":"AUV navigation and localization: A review","volume":"39","author":"Paull","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE J. Ocean. Eng."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1093\/icesjms\/fsp136","article-title":"How much fish is hidden in the surface and bottom acoustic blind zones?","volume":"66","author":"Scalabrin","year":"2009","journal-title":"ICES J. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1038\/415106a","article-title":"Whale deaths caused by US Navy\u2019s sonar","volume":"415","author":"Schrope","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18891","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0609274103","article-title":"Distant touch hydrodynamic imaging with an artificial lateral line","volume":"103","author":"Yang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"056007","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-3190\/11\/5\/056007","article-title":"Crocodile-inspired dome-shaped pressure receptors for passive hydrodynamic sensing","volume":"11","author":"Kanhere","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bioinspir. Biomim."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kanhere, E., Wang, N., Asadnia, M., Kottapalli, A., and Miao, J. (2015, January 21\u201325). Crocodile inspired Dome Pressure sensor for hydrodynamic sensing. Proceedings of the 2015 18th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems (TRANSDUCERS), Anchorage, AK, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/TRANSDUCERS.2015.7181144"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"i8","DOI":"10.1093\/icb\/icp112","article-title":"The biomechanics of sensory organs","volume":"49","author":"Sane","year":"2009","journal-title":"Integr. Comp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abels, C., Mastronardi, V.M., Guido, F., Dattoma, T., Qualtieri, A., Megill, W.M., De Vittorio, M., and Rizzi, F. (2017). Nitride-Based Materials for Flexible MEMS Tactile and Flow Sensors in Robotics. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17051080"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2903","DOI":"10.1002\/adma.200701141","article-title":"Hydrogel-encapsulated microfabricated haircells mimicking fish cupula neuromast","volume":"19","author":"Peleshanko","year":"2007","journal-title":"Adv. Mater."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"085006","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/21\/8\/085006","article-title":"A liquid crystal polymer membrane MEMS sensor for flow rate and flow direction sensing applications","volume":"21","author":"Kottapalli","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115030","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/21\/11\/115030","article-title":"A flexible liquid crystal polymer MEMS pressure sensor array for fish-like underwater sensing","volume":"21","author":"Kottapalli","year":"2012","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46011","DOI":"10.1088\/1748-3182\/9\/4\/046011","article-title":"Touch at a distance sensing: Lateral-line inspired MEMS flow sensors","volume":"9","author":"Asadnia","year":"2014","journal-title":"Bioinspir. Biomim."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kottapalli, A.G.P., Bora, M., Kanhere, E., Asadnia, M., Miao, J., and Triantafyllou, M.S. (2017). Cupula-Inspired Hyaluronic Acid-Based Hydrogel Encapsulation to Form Biomimetic MEMS Flow Sensors. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17081728"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, Z., Shan, X., Yang, H., Wang, W., and Xie, T. (2017). Parametric Analysis and Experimental Verification of a Hybrid Vibration Energy Harvester Combining Piezoelectric and Electromagnetic Mechanisms. Micromachines, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi8060189"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jia, J., Shan, X., Upadrashta, D., Xie, T., Yang, Y., and Song, R. (2018). Modeling and Analysis of Upright Piezoelectric Energy Harvester under Aerodynamic Vortex-induced Vibration. Micromachines, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/mi9120667"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.surfcoat.2018.11.102","article-title":"Piezoelectric ZnO thin films for 2DOF MEMS vibrational energy harvesting","volume":"359","author":"Tao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Surf. Coat. Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2016.02.022","article-title":"A miniaturized wireless accelerometer with micromachined piezoelectric sensing element","volume":"241","author":"Shen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3918","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2013.2259227","article-title":"Flexible and surface-mountable piezoelectric sensor arrays for underwater sensing in marine vehicles","volume":"13","author":"Asadnia","year":"2013","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20150322","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2015.0322","article-title":"Artificial fish skin of self-powered micro-electromechanical systems hair cells for sensing hydrodynamic flow phenomena","volume":"12","author":"Asadnia","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. R. Soc. Interface"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Bryant, R.G., Effinger, R.T., Aranda, I., Copeland, B.M., and Covington, E.W. (2002, January 17\u201321). Active piezoelectric diaphragms. Proceedings of the Smart Structures and Materials 2002: Active Materials: Behavior and Mechanics, San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1177\/1045389X04041646","article-title":"Radial field piezoelectric diaphragms","volume":"15","author":"Bryant","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2004.10.019","article-title":"Micromachined piezoelectric diaphragms actuated by ring shaped interdigitated transducer electrodes","volume":"119","author":"Hong","year":"2005","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2006.1621496","article-title":"Vibration of micromachined circular piezoelectric diaphragms","volume":"53","author":"Hong","year":"2006","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s10832-008-9454-x","article-title":"Fabrication of piezoelectric MEMS devices-from thin film to bulk PZT wafer","volume":"24","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Electroceram."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2012.09.028","article-title":"d33 mode piezoelectric diaphragm based acoustic transducer with high sensitivity","volume":"189","author":"Shen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"055001","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/21\/5\/055001","article-title":"Displacement and resonance behaviors of a piezoelectric diaphragm driven by a double-sided spiral electrode","volume":"21","author":"Shen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2008.11.012","article-title":"Acoustic transducers with a perforated damping backplate based on PZT\/silicon wafer bonding technique","volume":"149","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1007\/s00339-007-4369-y","article-title":"Micromachined ultrasonic transducers and arrays based on piezoelectric thick film","volume":"91","author":"Wang","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. B"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1080\/10584580390259010","article-title":"Design and fabrication of a lead zirconate titanate (PZT) thin film acoustic sensor","volume":"54","author":"Polcawich","year":"2003","journal-title":"Integr. Ferroelectr."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2276","DOI":"10.1109\/TUFFC.2005.1563270","article-title":"Piezoelectric micromachined ultrasonic transducers based on PZT thin films","volume":"52","author":"Muralt","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00359-007-0275-1","article-title":"Object localization through the lateral line system of fish: theory and experiment","volume":"194","author":"Goulet","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Comp. Physiol. A"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/4\/962\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:34:30Z","timestamp":1760186070000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/4\/962"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,24]]},"references-count":32,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,2]]}},"alternative-id":["s19040962"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19040962","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,2,24]]}}}