{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,18]],"date-time":"2026-06-18T16:12:32Z","timestamp":1781799152954,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":20,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,2]],"date-time":"2019-03-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1551484800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004955","name":"\u00d6sterreichische Forschungsf\u00f6rderungsgesellschaft","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["834175"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["834175"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004955","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>We present a thermal flow sensor designed for measuring air as well as water flow velocities in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems. The sensor is designed to integrate the flow along the entire diameter of the pipe also quantifying the volume flow rate of the streaming fluid where the calorimetric principle in constant temperature operation is utilized as a readout method. In the constant temperature mode, a controller keeps a specific excess temperature between sensing elements at a constant level resulting in a flow dependent heater voltage. To achieve cost-effective sensors, the fabrication of the transducer is fully based on printed circuit board technology allowing low-cost mass production with different form factors. In addition, 2D-FEM simulations were carried out in order to predict the sensor characteristic of envisaged setups. The simulation enables a fast and easy way to evaluate the sensor\u2019s behaviour in different fluids. The results of the FEM simulations are compared to measurements in real environments, proving the credibility of the model.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19051065","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,4]],"date-time":"2019-03-04T05:45:36Z","timestamp":1551678336000},"page":"1065","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["A Thermal Flow Sensor Based on Printed Circuit Technology in Constant Temperature Mode for Various Fluids"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Thomas","family":"Glatzl","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Integrated Sensor Systems, Danube University Krems, Viktor Kaplan Strasse 2 E, 2700 Wiener Neustadt, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roman","family":"Beigelbeck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Integrated Sensor Systems, Danube University Krems, Viktor Kaplan Strasse 2 E, 2700 Wiener Neustadt, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Samir","family":"Cerimovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Integrated Sensor Systems, Danube University Krems, Viktor Kaplan Strasse 2 E, 2700 Wiener Neustadt, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Harald","family":"Steiner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Integrated Sensor Systems, Danube University Krems, Viktor Kaplan Strasse 2 E, 2700 Wiener Neustadt, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Florian","family":"Wenig","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Building Technology, University of Applied Sciences Burgenland, Steinamangerstrasse 21, 7423 Pinkafeld, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thilo","family":"Sauter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Integrated Sensor Systems, Danube University Krems, Viktor Kaplan Strasse 2 E, 2700 Wiener Neustadt, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Albert","family":"Treytl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department for Integrated Sensor Systems, Danube University Krems, Viktor Kaplan Strasse 2 E, 2700 Wiener Neustadt, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Franz","family":"Keplinger","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Sensor and Actuator Systems, TU Wien, Gusshausstrasse 27-29, 1040 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2007.03.007","article-title":"A review on buildings energy consumption information","volume":"40","author":"Ortiz","year":"2008","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enbuild.2010.10.025","article-title":"A review of HVAC systems requirements in building energy regulations","volume":"43","author":"Ortiz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Energy Build."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Yoder, J., and Morley, D. (2015). The Tao of Measurement: A Philosophical View of Flow and Sensors, International Society of Automation."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scholz, J., Ricolfi, T., Goepel, W., Hesse, J., and Zemel, J.N. (1990). Sensors-Volume 4: Thermal Sensors: A Comprehensive Survey, Wiley-VCH.","DOI":"10.1002\/9783527620159"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Grimes, C.A., Dickey, E.C., and Pishko, M.V. (2006). Encyclopedia of Sensors, ASP."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.3390\/mi3030550","article-title":"Micromachined Thermal Flow Sensors\u2014A Review","volume":"3","author":"Kuo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Micromachines"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2017.01.033","article-title":"Sensor technologies for the energy-water nexus\u2014A review","volume":"210","author":"Abegaz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Umar, L. (2016). New Approach for Airflow Measurement Using Thermal Resistance Simulation. KnE Eng., 1.","DOI":"10.18502\/keg.v1i1.492"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2012.09.127","article-title":"Flexible PCB-MEMS Flow Sensor","volume":"47","author":"Petropoulos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2011.12.002","article-title":"Flexible flow sensor for large-scale air-conditioning network systems","volume":"188","author":"Shikida","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2012.09.007","article-title":"Measurement and simulation of the frequency response of a thermal flow sensor at different flow speeds","volume":"189","author":"Cubukcu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2015.11.016","article-title":"Development of an air flow sensor for heating, ventilating, and air conditioning systems based on printed circuit board technology","volume":"237","author":"Glatzl","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Glatzl, T., Samir, C., and Albert, T. (2017). Thermal Flow Sensor Based on Printed Circuit Board Technology for Aqueous Media. Sensors and Electronic Instrumentation Advances, IFSA."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sauter, T., Cerimovic, S., Glatzl, T., Steiner, H., Talic, A., and Kohl, F. (2016, January 8\u201310). Using PCB technology for calorimetric water flow sensing in HVAC systems\u2014A feasibility study. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE 25th International Symposium on Industrial Electronics (ISIE), Santa Clara, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISIE.2016.7744968"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Glatzl, T., Beigelbeck, R., Cerimovic, S., Steiner, H., and Treytl, A. (2018). Finite Element Method Simulation and Characterization of a Thermal Flow Sensor based on Printed Circuit Board Technology for Various Fluids. Multidiscip. Digit. Publish. Inst. Proc., 2.","DOI":"10.3390\/proceedings2130833"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Glatzl, T., Cerimovic, S., Steiner, H., Talic, A., Beigelbeck, R., Jachimowicz, A., Sauter, T., and Keplinger, F. (2015, January 19\u201321). Development of Flow Sensors Realized with Printed Circuit Board Technology for Air Conditioning Systems. Proceedings of the AMA Conferences 2015, N\u00fcrnberg, Germany.","DOI":"10.5162\/sensor2015\/B7.2"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5320","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1662150","article-title":"Thermoelectric power of thin copper films","volume":"44","author":"Leonard","year":"1973","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wenig, F., Heschl, C., Glatzl, T., and Sauter, T. (November, January 29). Numerical and experimental characterization of a novel low-cost thermal air flow sensor. Proceedings of the IECON 2017-43rd Annual Conference of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/IECON.2017.8216616"},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Lutz, H., and Wendt, W. (2007). Taschenbuch der Regelungstechnik: Mit MATLAB und Simulink, Deutsch."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Crabtree, L.F., Dommett, R.L., Woodley, J.G., and Farnborough, R.A.E. (1970). Estimation of Heat Transfer to Flat Plates, Cones and Blunt Bodies, Her Majesty\u2019s Stationery Office."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/5\/1065\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:35:49Z","timestamp":1760186149000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/5\/1065"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,2]]},"references-count":20,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,3]]}},"alternative-id":["s19051065"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19051065","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,2]]}}}