{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T03:34:18Z","timestamp":1760240058364,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":26,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,4]],"date-time":"2019-03-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1551657600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Undergraduate Innovative and Entrepreneurial Training Program","award":["201710561202"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["201710561202"]}]},{"name":"Special Funds for the Cultivation of Guangdong College Students\u2019 Scienti\ufb01c and Technological Innovation (\u201cClimbing Program\u201d Special Funds)","award":["pdjh2017b0040"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["pdjh2017b0040"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Visible light positioning (VLP) is a promising technology for indoor navigation. However, most studies of VLP systems nowadays only focus on positioning accuracy, whereas robustness and real-time ability are often overlooked, which are all indispensable in actual VLP situations. Thus, we propose a novel VLP method based on mean shift (MS) algorithm and unscented Kalman filter (UKF) using image sensors as the positioning terminal and a Light Emitting Diode (LED) as the transmitting terminal. The main part of our VLP method is the MS algorithm, realizing high positioning accuracy with good robustness. Besides, UKF equips the mean shift algorithm with the capacity to track high-speed targets and improves the positioning accuracy when the LED is shielded. Moreover, a LED-ID (the identification of the LED) recognition algorithm proposed in our previous work was utilized to locate the LED in the initial frame, which also initialized MS and UKF. Furthermore, experiments showed that the positioning accuracy of our VLP algorithm was 0.42 cm, and the average processing time per frame was 24.93 ms. Also, even when half of the LED was shielded, the accuracy was maintained at 1.41 cm. All these data demonstrate that our proposed algorithm has excellent accuracy, strong robustness, and good real-time ability.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19051094","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,5]],"date-time":"2019-03-05T03:01:23Z","timestamp":1551754883000},"page":"1094","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["A High-Precision, Real-Time, and Robust Indoor Visible Light Positioning Method Based on Mean Shift Algorithm and Unscented Kalman Filter"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Zekun","family":"Xie","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic and Information Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China"}]},{"given":"Weipeng","family":"Guan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Automation Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China"}]},{"given":"Jieheng","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Computer Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China"}]},{"given":"Xinjie","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic and Information Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China"}]},{"given":"Shihuan","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Automation Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China"}]},{"given":"Bangdong","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronic and Information Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.14257\/ijsh.2014.8.1.26","article-title":"Smart parking information system exploiting visible light communication","volume":"8","author":"Kim","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Smart Home"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, W., and Kavehrad, M. (2012, January 9\u201311). A 2-D indoor localization system based on visible light LED. Proceedings of the Photonics Society Summer Topical Meeting Series, Seattle, WA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/PHOSST.2012.6280711"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al Nuaimi, K., and Kamel, H. (2011, January 25\u201327). A survey of indoor positioning systems and algorithms. Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Innovations in Information Technology (IIT), Abu Dhabi, UAE.","DOI":"10.1109\/INNOVATIONS.2011.5893813"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1067","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMCC.2007.905750","article-title":"Survey of Wireless Indoor Positioning Techniques and Systems","volume":"37","author":"Liu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Syst. Man Cybern."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autcon.2012.09.011","article-title":"An invisible head marker tracking system for indoor mobile augmented reality","volume":"33","author":"Kuo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Autom. Constr."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zou, H., Jiang, H., Lu, X., and Xie, L. (2014, January 6\u20138). An online sequential extreme leaning machine approach to Wi-Fi based indoor positioning. Proceedings of the Internet of Things (WF-IoT), Seoul, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/WF-IoT.2014.6803130"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"42","article-title":"A new location technique for the active office. Personal Communications","volume":"4","author":"Ward","year":"1997","journal-title":"IEEE"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Poves, E., del Campo-Jimenez, G., and Lopez-Hemandez, F.J. (2011, January 9\u201312). VLC-based light-weight portable user interface for in-house applications. Proceedings of the Consumer Communications and Networking Conference (CCNC), Las Vegas, NV, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/CCNC.2011.5766492"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1109\/JPHOT.2018.2841979","article-title":"High Speed Robust Dynamic Positioning and Tracking Method Based on Visual Visible Light Communication Using Optical Flow Detection and Bayesian Forecast","volume":"10","author":"Guan","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Photon. J."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Do, T.-H., and Yoo, M. (2016). An in-depth survey of visible light communication-based positioning systems. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16050678"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"016101","DOI":"10.1117\/1.OE.57.1.016101","article-title":"Three-dimensional high-precision indoor positioning strategy using Tabu search based on visible light communication","volume":"57","author":"Peng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optcom.2017.12.045","article-title":"Indoor high precision three-dimensional positioning system based on visible light communication using modified genetic algorithm","volume":"413","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Commun."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optcom.2017.02.015","article-title":"A novel three-dimensional indoor positioning algorithm design based on visible light communication","volume":"392","author":"Guan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Commun."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7908120","DOI":"10.1109\/JPHOT.2017.2771828","article-title":"Indoor high precision three-dimensional positioning system based on visible light communication using particle swarm optimization","volume":"9","author":"Cai","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Photon. J."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106103","DOI":"10.1117\/1.OE.56.10.106103","article-title":"High-precision approach to localization scheme of visible light communication based on artificial neural networks and modified genetic algorithms","volume":"56","author":"Guan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106105","DOI":"10.1117\/1.OE.55.10.106105","article-title":"High precision three-dimensional iterative indoor localization algorithm using code division multiple access modulation based on visible light communication","volume":"55","author":"Wen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1780","DOI":"10.1109\/JSAC.2015.2432514","article-title":"Indoor MIMO visible light communications: Novel angle diversity receivers for mobile users","volume":"33","author":"Nuwanpriya","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE J. Sel. Areas Commun."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optcom.2017.10.038","article-title":"Performance analysis and enhancement for visible light communication using CMOS sensors","volume":"410","author":"Guan","year":"2018","journal-title":"Opt. Commun."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7902116","DOI":"10.1109\/JPHOT.2018.2809731","article-title":"The LED-ID detection and recognition method based on visible light positioning using proximity method","volume":"10","author":"Xie","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Photon. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1166","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2015.2507182","article-title":"Indoor position tracking using multiple optical receivers","volume":"34","author":"Yasir","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Lightw. Technol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7905209","DOI":"10.1109\/JPHOT.2017.2722474","article-title":"A single LED positioning system based on circle projection","volume":"9","author":"Zhang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Photon. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cha, J., and Lee, S. (2012, January 16\u201319). A study on location DB matching of IPS in specific area using LED lights and image sensor. Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Future Generation Information Technology, Gangneug, Korea.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-35585-1_28"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Ren, Z.X., Zhang, H.M., Wei, L., and Guan, Y. (2014, January 23\u201324). A high precision indoor positioning system based on VLC and smart handheld. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computers and Information Processing Technologies I, Shanghai, China."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alsalami Farah, M. (2016, January 29\u201331). Game theory Minimax filter design for indoor positioning and tracking system using visible light communications. Proceedings of the 2016 6th International Conference on Information Communication and Management (ICICM), Hatfield, UK.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFOCOMAN.2016.7784242"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8200711","DOI":"10.1109\/JPHOT.2017.2687947","article-title":"High-speed indoor navigation system based on visible light and mobile phone","volume":"9","author":"Fang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Photon. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132014","DOI":"10.4236\/jsea.2014.713094","article-title":"A Target Tracking Algorithm Based on Improved Camshift and UKF","volume":"7","author":"Yan","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Softw. Eng. Appl."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/5\/1094\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:36:08Z","timestamp":1760186168000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/5\/1094"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,4]]},"references-count":26,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,3]]}},"alternative-id":["s19051094"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19051094","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,4]]}}}