{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T03:36:22Z","timestamp":1760240182979,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":23,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,23]],"date-time":"2019-03-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1553299200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>As the applications of fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) continue to grow and become more advanced, it becomes necessary to understand their behavior when exposed to high temperatures in unique situations. In these experiments, uniform 1530-nm fiber Bragg gratings and Type K Cr-Al thermocouples were embedded in three-ply carbon fiber composites. A 100 W high energy laser (HEL) heated the composites to high temperatures over timespans less than one second, and FBG spectral data and thermocouple temperature data were collected during each HEL heating test. The data from three high energy laser tests that represent different levels of damage to the FBG are analyzed to explore the spectral response and thermal decay of embedded FBG sensors when exposed to high temperatures over short timespans. Results are compared to a previously proposed power-law model describing the decay of FBGs in bare fiber when held at constant temperatures over much longer timespans.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19061432","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,25]],"date-time":"2019-03-25T06:56:52Z","timestamp":1553497012000},"page":"1432","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["High Temperature Effects during High Energy Laser Strikes on Embedded Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Michael J.","family":"Ross","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, US Naval Academy, 105 Maryland Ave., Annapolis, MD 21402, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"R. Brian","family":"Jenkins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, US Naval Academy, 105 Maryland Ave., Annapolis, MD 21402, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Charles","family":"Nelson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, US Naval Academy, 105 Maryland Ave., Annapolis, MD 21402, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6774-2170","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peter","family":"Joyce","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mechanical Engineering, US Naval Academy, 590 Holloway Rd., Annapolis, MD 21402, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/S0958-9465(96)00040-6","article-title":"Fiber-optic Bragg Grating Sensors for Bridge Monitoring","volume":"19","author":"Maaskant","year":"1997","journal-title":"Cem. Concr. Compos."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"647","DOI":"10.1063\/1.89881","article-title":"Photosensitivity in optical fiber waveguides: Application to reflection filter fabrication","volume":"32","author":"Hill","year":"1978","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1263","DOI":"10.1109\/50.618320","article-title":"Fiber Bragg Grating Technology Fundamentals and Overview","volume":"15","author":"Hill","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1016\/j.optlaseng.2004.04.009","article-title":"Embedded fiber Bragg grating sensor for internal strain measurements in polymeric materials","volume":"43","author":"Botsis","year":"2005","journal-title":"Opti. Lasers Eng."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101703C","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2260308","article-title":"Integration of fiber Bragg grating optic sensors for strain detection in structures composed of CFRP composite","volume":"10170","author":"Harris","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/S0263-8223(98)00045-2","article-title":"Fundamentals and applications of optical fiber Bragg grating sensors to textile structural composites","volume":"42","author":"Du","year":"1998","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"73140","article-title":"Fiber Optic Sensor Applications in Transportation Infrastructure Protection","volume":"7314","author":"Krohn","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1828","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2005.04.023","article-title":"Development of fiber Bragg grating sensors for monitoring civil infrastructure","volume":"27","author":"Moyo","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Takahashia, I., Sekine, K., Takeya, H., Iwahori, Y., Takeda, N., and Koshioka, Y. (2012, January 11\u201315). Life Cycle Structural Health Monitoring of Airframe Structures: Strain Mapping using FBG Sensors. Proceedings of the SPIE Smart Structures and Materials & Nondestructive Evaluation and Health Monitoring, San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Tarawneh, M., and Huang, Y. (2017, January 25\u201329). In-pavement fiber Bragg grating sensors for high-speed weigh-in-motion measurements. Proceedings of the 2017 SPIE Smart Structures and Materials & Nondestructive Evaluation and Health Monitoring, Portland, OR, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2259754"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejpb.2012.10.009","article-title":"Implementation and evaluation of an optical fiber system as novel process monitoring tool during lyophilization","volume":"83","author":"Kasper","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"1","article-title":"Large-strain optical fiber sensing and real-time FEM updating of steel structures under the high temperature effect","volume":"22","author":"Huang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2016.12.013","article-title":"New fiber optic sensor for monitoring temperatures in concrete structures during fires","volume":"254","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"011701\u201301","DOI":"10.1115\/1.3062942","article-title":"Long-Range Pipeline Monitoring by Distributed Fiber Optic Sensing","volume":"132","author":"Inaudi","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Press. Vessel Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jenkins, R.B., Joyce, P., Mechtel, D., Milden, K., Elam, K., and Watkins, R.J. (2013, January 10\u201314). Highly localized thermal response measurements in composites using embedded fiber Bragg grating temperature sensors. Proceedings of the 2013 SPIE Smart Structures and Materials & Nondestructive Evaluation and Health Monitoring, San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2012180"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jenkins, R.B., Joyce, P., and Mechtel, D. (2017). Localized temperature variations in laser irradiated composites with embedded fiber Bragg grating sensors. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17020251"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1063\/1.357062","article-title":"Decay of ultraviolet-induced fiber Bragg gratings","volume":"76","author":"Erdogan","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.35.000586","article-title":"Thermal stabilization of Type I fiber Bragg gratings for operation up to 600 \u00b0C","volume":"35","author":"Canning","year":"2010","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1835","DOI":"10.1364\/JOSAB.30.001835","article-title":"Thermometric study of CO2-laser heated optical fibers in excess of 1700 \u00b0C using fiber Bragg gratings","volume":"30","author":"Holmberg","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Opt. Soc. Am. B"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jenkins, R.B., Joyce, P., Nelson, C., and Kautzman, M. (2018, January 4\u20138). Response of an embedded distributed optical fiber sensor to directed energy and applied strain. Proceedings of the 2018 SPIE Smart Structures and Materials & Nondestructive Evaluation and Health Monitoring, Denver, CO, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2296647"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jenkins, R.B., Joyce, P., Kong, A., and Nelson, C. (2019, January 3\u20137). Discerning localized thermal impulses using an embedded distributed optical fiber sensor network. Proceedings of the 2019 SPIE Smart Structures and Materials & Nondestructive Evaluation and Health Monitoring, Denver, CO, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2514386"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Ross, M.J., Nelson, C., Jenkins, R.B., and Joyce, P. (2017, January 25\u201329). Effects of High Energy Laser Strikes on Embedded Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors. Proceedings of the 2017 Directed Energy Systems Symposium, Monterey, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1470","DOI":"10.1109\/50.618379","article-title":"Thermal Decay of Fiber Bragg Gratings Written in Boron and Germanium Codoped Silica Fiber","volume":"15","author":"Baker","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Lightwave Technol."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/6\/1432\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:40:11Z","timestamp":1760186411000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/6\/1432"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,23]]},"references-count":23,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,3]]}},"alternative-id":["s19061432"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19061432","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,23]]}}}