{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T03:36:59Z","timestamp":1760240219143,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,13]],"date-time":"2019-04-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1555113600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A feature extraction methodology based on lamb waves is developed for the non-invasive detection and prediction of the gap in concrete\u2013metal composite structures, such as concrete-filled steel tubes. A popular feature extraction method, partial least squares regression, is utilised to predict the gaps. The data is collected using the piezoelectric transducers attached to the external surface of the metal of the composite structure. A piezoelectric actuator generates a sine burst signal, which propagates along the metal and is received by a piezoelectric sensor. The partial least squares regression is performed on the raw sensor signal to extract features and to determine the relationship between the signal and the gap size, which is then used to predict the gaps. The applicability of the developed system is tested on two concrete-metal composite specimens. The first specimen consisted of an aluminium plate and the second specimen consisted of a steel plate. This technique is able to detect and predict gaps as low as 0.1 mm. The results demonstrate the applicability of this technique for the gap and debonding detection in concrete-filled steel tubes, which are critical in determining the degree of composite action between concrete and metal.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19081769","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,15]],"date-time":"2019-04-15T11:15:58Z","timestamp":1555326958000},"page":"1769","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Detection of Gaps in Concrete\u2013Metal Composite Structures Based on the Feature Extraction Method Using Piezoelectric Transducers"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9994-3698","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paritosh","family":"Giri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physics and Astronomy, Macquarie University, North Ryde 2109, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Spandan","family":"Mishra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering, Florida A&amp;M University\u2014Florida State University College of Engineering, Tallahassee, FL 32310, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7488-3438","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Simon Martin","family":"Clark","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde 2109, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Bijan","family":"Samali","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre for Infrastructure Engineering, School of Computing, Engineering and Mathematics, Western Sydney University, Penrith 2751, Australia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2014.12.053","article-title":"Mechanical behavior of concrete-filled square steel tube with FRP-confined concrete core subjected to axial compression","volume":"123","author":"Feng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcsr.2015.12.030","article-title":"Bond behavior in concrete-filled steel tubes","volume":"120","author":"Tao","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Constr. Steel Res."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"165","article-title":"Design strength of concrete-filled steel columns","volume":"11","author":"Kang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Adv. Steel Constr."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcsr.2018.02.038","article-title":"Performance of concrete filled stainless steel tubular (CFSST) columns and joints: Summary of recent research","volume":"152","author":"Han","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Constr. Steel Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X., Chen, Y., Shen, X., and Zhu, Y. (2019). Behavior of circular CFST columns subjected to different lateral impact energy. Appl. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/app9061134"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcsr.2014.11.005","article-title":"Noncompact and slender circular CFT members: Experimental database, analysis, and design","volume":"106","author":"Lai","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Constr. Steel Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcsr.2011.08.002","article-title":"Effects of debonding on circular CFST stub columns","volume":"69","author":"Xue","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Constr. Steel Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1773","DOI":"10.1617\/s11527-013-0150-1","article-title":"Tensile basic creep versus compressive basic creep at early ages: Comparison between normal strength concrete and a very high strength fibre reinforced concrete","volume":"47","author":"Rossi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1922","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcsr.2011.06.009","article-title":"Behavior of CFST short column and beam with initial concrete imperfection: Experiments","volume":"67","author":"Liao","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Constr. Steel Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Capriotti, M., Kim, H.E., Scalea, F.L.D., and Kim, H. (2017). Non-destructive inspection of impact damage in composite aircraft panels by ultrasonic guided waves and statistical processing. Materials, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ma10060616"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8528","DOI":"10.3390\/s140508528","article-title":"Numerical simulation of nonlinear lamb waves used in a thin plate for detecting buried micro-cracks","volume":"14","author":"Wan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salmanpour, M., Sharif Khodaei, Z., and Aliabadi, M. (2016). Airborne transducer integrity under operational environment for structural health monitoring. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16122110"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, W., and Gao, P. (2019). Lamb wave-minimum Sampling variance particle filter-based fatigue crack prognosis. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19051070"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"025033","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/26\/2\/025033","article-title":"Smart washer\u2014A piezoceramic-based transducer to monitor looseness of bolted connection","volume":"26","author":"Huo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sevillano, E., Sun, R., and Perera, R. (2016). Damage detection based on power dissipation measured with PZT sensors through the combination of electro-mechanical impedances and guided waves. Sensors, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16050639"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00566414","article-title":"Lamb wave mode selection concepts for interfacial weakness analysis","volume":"11","author":"Pilarski","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Nondestr. Eval."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Na, W., Seo, D.-W., Kim, B.-C., and Park, K.-T. (2018). Effects of applying different resonance amplitude on the performance of the impedance-based health monitoring technique subjected to damage. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18072267"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hong, X., Liu, Y., Liufu, Y., and Lin, P. (2018). Debonding detection in hidden frame supported glass curtain walls using the nonlinear ultrasonic modulation method with piezoceramic transducers. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18072094"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsv.2009.02.028","article-title":"Guided wave propagation and spectral element method for debonding damage assessment in RC structures","volume":"324","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Sound Vib."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/AMM.553.687","article-title":"Modelling of guided wave propagation with spectral element: Application in structural engineering","volume":"553","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Mech. Mater."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kong, Q., Robert, R.H., Silva, P., and Mo, Y. (2016). Cyclic crack monitoring of a reinforced concrete column under simulated pseudo-dynamic loading using piezoceramic-based smart aggregates. Appl. Sci., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/app6110341"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"095050","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/aa80bc","article-title":"A novel embeddable spherical smart aggregate for structural health monitoring: Part I. Fabrication and electrical characterization","volume":"26","author":"Kong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125026","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/24\/12\/125026","article-title":"Bond slip detection of concrete-encased composite structure using shear wave based active sensing approach","volume":"24","author":"Zeng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909682","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/909682","article-title":"PZT-based detection of compactness of concrete in concrete filled steel tube using time reversal method","volume":"2014","author":"Yan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Math. Probl. Eng."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2011.07.029","article-title":"Active interface debonding detection of a concrete-filled steel tube with piezoelectric technologies using wavelet packet analysis","volume":"36","author":"Xu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Pr."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125008","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/aae23b","article-title":"Numerical study on interface debonding detection mechanisms with 2D spectral element method for concrete-filled steel tube using embedded PZT sensor","volume":"27","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1435","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000632","article-title":"Active debonding detection for large rectangular CFSTs based on wavelet packet energy spectrum with piezoceramics","volume":"139","author":"Xu","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Struct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2018.01.041","article-title":"Dominance of debonding defect of CFST on PZT sensor response considering the meso-scale structure of concrete with multi-scale simulation","volume":"107","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Pr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2018.07.047","article-title":"Debonding detection for rectangular CFST using surface wave measurement: Test and multi-physical fields numerical simulation","volume":"117","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Pr."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsolstr.2017.05.040","article-title":"Multi-physical field guided wave simulation for circular concrete-filled steel tubes coupled with piezoelectric patches considering debonding defects","volume":"122","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Solids Struct."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yan, B., Zou, Q., Dong, Y., and Shao, X. (2018). Application of PZT technology and clustering algorithm for debonding detection of steel-UHPC composite slabs. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18092953"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1177\/1475921718803790","article-title":"Characterization of carbon fiber reinforced polymer strengthened concrete and gap detection with a piezoelectric-based sensory technique","volume":"18","author":"Giri","year":"2019","journal-title":"Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/ab0b6e","article-title":"Debonding detection in a carbon fibre reinforced concrete structure using guided waves","volume":"28","author":"Giri","year":"2019","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.4028\/www.scientific.net\/MSF.440-441.195","article-title":"Environmental effects on lamb wave responses from piezoceramic sensors","volume":"440\u2013441","author":"Lee","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mater. Sci. Forum"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"025034","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/17\/2\/025034","article-title":"Damage detection using piezoelectric transducers and the lamb wave approach: II. Robust and quantitative decision making","volume":"17","author":"Lu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e588","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1475-1305.2009.00661.x","article-title":"Principal component analysis of acoustic emission signals from landing gear components: An aid to fatigue fracture detection","volume":"47","author":"Eaton","year":"2011","journal-title":"Strain"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pavlopoulou, S., Worden, K., and Soutis, C. (2013, January 17). Structural health monitoring and damage prognosis in composite repaired structures through the excitation of guided ultrasonic waves. Proceedings of the Smart Structures and Materials + Nondestructive Evaluation and Health Monitoring (SPIE, 2013), San Diego, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2009346"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4098","DOI":"10.1098\/rspa.2012.0031","article-title":"Features for damage detection with insensitivity to environmental and operational variations","volume":"468","author":"Cross","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. A"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Kessler, S.S., and Agrawal, P. (, January September). Application of pattern recognition for damage classification in composite laminates. Proceedings of the 6th International Workshop on Structural Health Monitoring, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"1","article-title":"A multivariate cumulative sum method for continuous damage monitoring with lamb-wave sensors","volume":"6","author":"Mishra","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Progn. Heal. Manag."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/s10921-015-0328-2","article-title":"Remaining useful life estimation with lamb-wave sensors based on wiener process and principal components regression","volume":"35","author":"Mishra","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Nondestr. Eval."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giri, P., and Kharkovsky, S. (2017, January 22\u201325). Detection of gap in concrete-metal structures using piezoelectric sensor technique. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Instrumentation Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC), Torino, Italy.","DOI":"10.1109\/I2MTC.2017.7969835"},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Hill, T., Lewicki, P., and Lewicki, P. (2006). Statistics: Methods and Applications: A Comprehensive Reference for Science, Industry, and Data Mining, StatSoft, Inc."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sigpro.2019.03.002","article-title":"A class of multidimensional NIPALS algorithms for quaternion and tensor partial least squares regression","volume":"160","author":"Stott","year":"2019","journal-title":"Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2017.08.022","article-title":"Size effect in circular concrete-filled steel tubes with different diameter-to-thickness ratios under axial compression","volume":"151","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/8\/1769\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:45:11Z","timestamp":1760186711000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/8\/1769"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,13]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s19081769"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19081769","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,13]]}}}