{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,14]],"date-time":"2026-05-14T11:06:33Z","timestamp":1778756793050,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,21]],"date-time":"2019-04-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1555804800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100011688","name":"Electronic Components and Systems for European Leadership","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["692482"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["692482"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100011688","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The increasing interest in the Internet of Things (IoT) has led to the rapid development of low-power sensors and wireless networks. However, there are still several barriers that make a global deployment of the IoT difficult. One of these issues is the energy dependence, normally limited by the capacitance of the batteries. A promising solution to provide energy autonomy to the IoT nodes is to harvest residual energy from ambient sources, such as motion, vibrations, light, or heat. Mechanical energy can be converted into electrical energy by using piezoelectric transducers. The piezoelectric generators provide an alternating electrical signal that must be rectified and, therefore, needs a power management circuit to adapt the output to the operating voltage of the IoT devices. The bonding and packaging of the different components constitute a large part of the cost of the manufacturing process of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) and integrated circuits. This could be reduced by using a monolithic integration of the generator together with the circuitry in a single chip. In this work, we report the optimization, fabrication, and characterization of a vibration-driven piezoelectric MEMS energy harvester, and the design and simulation of a charge-pump converter based on a standard complementary metal\u2013oxide\u2013semiconductor (CMOS) technology. Finally, we propose combining MEMS and CMOS technologies to obtain a fully integrated system that includes the piezoelectric generator device and the charge-pump converter circuit without the need of external components. This solution opens new doors to the development of low-cost autonomous smart dust devices.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19081895","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,22]],"date-time":"2019-04-22T11:02:53Z","timestamp":1555930973000},"page":"1895","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["Optimization of a Piezoelectric Energy Harvester and Design of a Charge Pump Converter for CMOS-MEMS Monolithic Integration"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4325-2406","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marcos","family":"Duque","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Micro and Nanoengineering, Instituto de Microelectr\u00f3nica de Barcelona IMB-CNM (CSIC), Campus UAB Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Edgardo","family":"Leon-Salguero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Postgrado en Nanotecnolog\u00eda, Universidad de Sonora (Unison), Hermosillo, Sonora 83000, Mexico"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jordi","family":"Sacrist\u00e1n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Micro and Nanoengineering, Instituto de Microelectr\u00f3nica de Barcelona IMB-CNM (CSIC), Campus UAB Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jaume","family":"Esteve","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Micro and Nanoengineering, Instituto de Microelectr\u00f3nica de Barcelona IMB-CNM (CSIC), Campus UAB Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gonzalo","family":"Murillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Micro and Nanoengineering, Instituto de Microelectr\u00f3nica de Barcelona IMB-CNM (CSIC), Campus UAB Bellaterra, 08193 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yau, C.-W., Kwok, T.T.-O., Lei, C.-U., and Kwok, Y.-K. (2018). Energy Harvesting in Internet of Things. Internet of Things (Technology, Communications and Computing), Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-10-5861-5_3"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bouguera, T., Diouris, J.F., Chaillout, J.J., Jaouadi, R., and Andrieux, G. (2018). Energy consumption model for sensor nodes based on LoRa and LoRaWAN. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18072104"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Boisseau, S. (2019, April 21). Energy harvesting, Wireless sensor networks & opportunities for industrial applications. Available online: https:\/\/www.eetimes.com\/document.asp?doc_id=1279440."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2572","DOI":"10.1021\/nl201505c","article-title":"Self-powered system with wireless data transmission","volume":"11","author":"Hu","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2641","DOI":"10.1016\/j.renene.2010.06.014","article-title":"Energy harvesting: State-of-the-art","volume":"36","author":"Harb","year":"2011","journal-title":"Renew. Energy"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paerosci.2015.10.001","article-title":"Review on energy harvesting for structural health monitoring in aeronautical applications","volume":"79","author":"Le","year":"2015","journal-title":"Prog. Aerosp. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11700","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.201201656","article-title":"Nanotechnology-enabled energy harvesting for self-powered micro-\/nanosystems","volume":"51","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, M., Murillo, G., Hwang, S., Kim, J.W., Jung, J.H., Chen, C.-Y., and Lee, M. (2017). Mechanical and electrical characterization of PVDF-ZnO hybrid structure for application to nanogenerator. Nano Energy, 33.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2017.01.062"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, H.S., Lee, D.W., Kim, D.H., Kong, D.S., Choi, J., Lee, M., Murillo, G., and Jung, J.H. (2018). Dominant Role of Young\u2019s Modulus for Electric Power Generation in PVDF\u2013BaTiO3 Composite-Based Piezoelectric Nanogenerator. Nanomaterials, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/nano8100777"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1177\/0583102404043275","article-title":"A Review of Power Harvesting from Vibration Using Piezoelectric Materials","volume":"36","author":"Sodano","year":"2004","journal-title":"Shock Vib. Dig."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Priya, S., Song, H.-C., Zhou, Y., Varghese, R., Chopra, A., Kim, S.-G., Kanno, I., Wu, L., Ha, D.S., and Ryu, J. (2017). A Review on Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting: Materials, Methods, and Circuits. Energy Harvest. Syst.","DOI":"10.1515\/ehs-2016-0028"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2004.04.026","article-title":"MEMS electrostatic micropower generator for low frequency operation","volume":"115","author":"Mitcheson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104004","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/18\/10\/104004","article-title":"A capacitive vibration-to-electricity energy converter with integrated mechanical switches","volume":"18","author":"Chiu","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kil Yun, B., Soo Kim, H., Joon Ko, Y., Murillo, G., and Hoon Jung, J. (2017). Interdigital electrode based triboelectric nanogenerator for effective energy harvesting from water. Nano Energy, 36.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2017.04.048"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nanoen.2017.12.052","article-title":"Floating buoy-based triboelectric nanogenerator for an effective vibrational energy harvesting from irregular and random water waves in wild sea","volume":"45","author":"Kim","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nano Energy"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9533","DOI":"10.1021\/nn404614z","article-title":"Triboelectric nanogenerators as new energy technology for self-powered systems and as active mechanical and chemical sensors","volume":"7","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACS Nano"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1049\/ip-cds:20010525","article-title":"Development of an electromagnetic micro-generator","volume":"148","author":"Williams","year":"2001","journal-title":"IEE Proc.-Circuits Devices Syst."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1183","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mee.2009.01.081","article-title":"Harvester-on-chip: Design of a proof of concept prototype","volume":"86","author":"Murillo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Microelectron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115027","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/24\/11\/115027","article-title":"Self-suspended vibration-driven energy harvesting chip for power density maximization","volume":"24","author":"Murillo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"085023","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/24\/8\/085023","article-title":"Modeling and characterization of electret based vibration energy harvesters in slot-effect configuration","volume":"24","author":"Renaud","year":"2015","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fonseca, L., Calaza, C., Salleras, M., Murillo, G., Esteve, J., Tarancon, A., Morata, A., Santos, J.D., and Gadea, G. (2015, January 11\u201313). SiNERGY, a project on energy harvesting and microstorage empowered by Silicon technologies. Proceedings of the 2015 10th Spanish Conference on Electron Devices (CDE 2015), Madrid, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/CDE.2015.7087488"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012042","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/476\/1\/012042","article-title":"Novel optimized design of a piezoelectric energy harvester in a package for low amplitude vibrations","volume":"476","author":"Murillo","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Phys. Conf. Ser."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/13\/5\/018","article-title":"A piezoelectric vibration based generator for wireless electronics","volume":"13","author":"Roundy","year":"2004","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nantod.2013.11.002","article-title":"Piezotronics and piezo-phototronics\u2014From single nanodevices to array of devices and then to integrated functional system","volume":"8","author":"Wu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nano Today"},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Mateu, L., Spies, P., Kaal, W., Muller, M.F., Zimmermann, B., Wurfel, U., Brunner, B., Kurch, M., Spreemann, D., and Folkmer, B. (2013). Handbook of Energy Harvesting Power Supplies and Applications, Jenny Stanford Publishing. [1st ed.]."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zessin, H., Spies, P., and Mateu, L. (2016). Power density improvement of the power conditioning circuit for combined piezoelectric and electrodynamic generators. J. Phys. Conf. Ser., 773.","DOI":"10.1088\/1742-6596\/773\/1\/012055"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Priya, S., and Inman, D.J. (2009). Energy Harvesting Technologies, Springer. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-387-76464-1"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tanzawa, T. (2015). On-Chip High-Voltage Generator Design: Design Methodology for Charge Pumps, Springer. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-21975-2"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124008","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/26\/12\/124008","article-title":"Interface circuit with adjustable bias voltage enabling maximum power point tracking of capacitive energy harvesting devices","volume":"26","author":"Wei","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Micromech. Microeng."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proche.2009.07.282","article-title":"VHF band-pass filter based on a single CMOS-MEMS doubleended tuning fork resonator","volume":"1","author":"Lopez","year":"2009","journal-title":"Procedia Chem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L\u00f3pez, J.L., Giner, J., Murillo, G., Torres, F., Marig\u00f3, E., Uranga, A., Abadal, G., and Barniol, N. (2010). Third-mode 48 MHz free-free beam resonator used as a RF balun. Microelectron. Eng., 87.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mee.2009.11.079"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marig\u00f3, E., Lopez, J.L.L., Murillo, G., Torres, F., Giner, J., Uranga, A., Abadal, G., Esteve, J., Barniol, N., and Marigo, E. (2010). Zero-level packaging of MEMS in standard CMOS technology. J. Micromech. Microeng., 20.","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/20\/6\/064009"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Duque, M., Leon-Salguero, E., Sacrist\u00e1n, J., Esteve, J., and Murillo, G. (2018). Towards the Monolithic Integration of Converter Circuitry and Piezoelectric MEMS Energy Harvesters. Proceedings, 2.","DOI":"10.3390\/proceedings2131512"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proeng.2011.12.022","article-title":"Heterogeneous Integration of Autonomous Systems in Package for Wireless Sensor Networks","volume":"25","author":"Murillo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Procedia Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Murillo, G., Agust\u00ed, J., Abadal, G., Torres, F., Giner, J., Marig\u00f3, E., Uranga, A., and Barniol, N. (2009, January 1\u20134). Integration of an improved Harvester-on-Chip core dice on commercial SOI-based MEMS technology. Proceedings of the 9th International PowerMEMS Workshop, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uranga, A., Verd, J., Lopez, J.L., Teva, J., Torres, F., Giner, J.J., Murillo, G., Abadal, G., and Barniol, N. (2009). Electrically enhanced readout system for a high-frequency CMOS-MEMS resonator. ETRI J., 31.","DOI":"10.4218\/etrij.09.0208.0380"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lopez, J.L., Verd, J., Giner, J., Uranga, A., Murillo, G., Marigo, E., Torres, F., Abadal, G., and Barniol, N. (2009, January 21\u201325). High Q CMOS-MEMS resonators and its applications as RF tunable band-pass filters. Proceedings of the TRANSDUCERS 2009\u201415th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors, Actuators and Microsystems, Denver, CO, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/SENSOR.2009.5285385"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mejo.2006.07.023","article-title":"Fabrication and performance of MEMS-based piezoelectric power generator for vibration energy harvesting","volume":"37","author":"Fang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Microelectron. J."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Murillo, G., Campanella, H., Agusti, J., Esteve, J., and Abadal, G. (February, January 29). Integration of piezoelectric energy scavengers with FBAR resonators for the miniaturization of autonomous wireless sensors nodes. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS), Paris, France."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Murillo, G., Abadal, G., Torres, F., Lopez, J.L., Giner, J., Campanella, H., Uranga, A., Esteve, J., and Barniol, N. (2008, January 9\u201312). Design of piezoelectric scavengers using FBAR technology. Proceedings of the 8th International PowerMEMS Workshop, Sendai, Japan."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-3664(02)00248-7","article-title":"A study of low level vibrations as a power source for wireless sensor nodes","volume":"26","author":"Roundy","year":"2003","journal-title":"Comput. Commun."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"Murillo, G., Duque, M., Leon-Salguero, E., Navarro, M., Martinez, C., and Esteve, J. (2017, January 18\u201322). Vibration-driven Energy Harvesting for Smart Objects. Proceedings of the 43rd International conference on Micro and Nanoengineering, Braga, Portugal."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Murillo Rodriguez, G., Esteve Tint\u00f3, J., and Sacristan Riquelme, J. (2016). System and device for collecting piezoelectric energy. (WO2016207458A1), W.O. Patent."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"(2019, February 10). ENERGIOT DEVICES SL, Barcelona, Spain. Available online: www.energiot.com."},{"key":"ref_45","unstructured":"Landau, L.D., and Lifshitz, E.M. (1999). Mechanics, Butterworth-Heinemann. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shao, L.C., Palaniapan, M., Tan, W.W., and Khine, L. (2008). Nonlinearity in micromechanical free-free beam resonators: Modeling and experimental verification. J. Micromech. Microeng.","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/18\/2\/025017"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Kaajakari, V. (2009). Practical MEMS: Design of Microsystems, Accelerometers, Gyroscopes, RF MEMS, Optical MEMS, and Microfluidic Systems, Small Gear Publishing."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1007\/s00542-013-2006-6","article-title":"Evaluation of low-acceleration MEMS piezoelectric energy harvesting devices","volume":"20","author":"Jackson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Microsyst. Technol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2012.02.028","article-title":"Experimental and theoretical studies on MEMS piezoelectric vibrational energy harvesters with mass loading","volume":"178","author":"Andosca","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Phillip, E., and Allen, D.R.H. (2002). CMOS Analog Circuit Design, Oxford University."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uyemura, J.P. (1992). Circuit design for CMOS VLSI, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-3620-8"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/8\/1895\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:46:08Z","timestamp":1760186768000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/8\/1895"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,21]]},"references-count":51,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,4]]}},"alternative-id":["s19081895"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19081895","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,4,21]]}}}