{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,23]],"date-time":"2026-01-23T11:38:26Z","timestamp":1769168306116,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":34,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,15]],"date-time":"2019-05-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1557878400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Light in flight was captured by a single shot of a newly developed backside-illuminated multi-collection-gate image sensor at a frame interval of 10 ns without high-speed gating devices such as a streak camera or post data processes. This paper reports the achievement and further evolution of the image sensor toward the theoretical temporal resolution limit of 11.1 ps derived by the authors. The theoretical analysis revealed the conditions to minimize the temporal resolution. Simulations show that the image sensor designed following the specified conditions and fabricated by existing technology will achieve a frame interval of 50 ps. The sensor, 200 times faster than our latest sensor will innovate advanced analytical apparatuses using time-of-flight or lifetime measurements, such as imaging TOF-MS, FLIM, pulse neutron tomography, PET, LIDAR, and more, beyond these known applications.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19102247","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,15]],"date-time":"2019-05-15T11:37:40Z","timestamp":1557920260000},"page":"2247","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":36,"title":["Light-In-Flight Imaging by a Silicon Image Sensor: Toward the Theoretical Highest Frame Rate"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Takeharu","family":"Etoh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Science and Engineering, Kindai University, 3-4-1 Kowakae, Higahsi-Osaka, Osaka 577-8502, Japan"},{"name":"School of Science and Engineering, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Noji-Higashi, Kusatsu, Shiga 525-8577, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tomoo","family":"Okinaka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Science and Engineering, Kindai University, 3-4-1 Kowakae, Higahsi-Osaka, Osaka 577-8502, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yasuhide","family":"Takano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Science and Engineering, Kindai University, 3-4-1 Kowakae, Higahsi-Osaka, Osaka 577-8502, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kohsei","family":"Takehara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Science and Engineering, Kindai University, 3-4-1 Kowakae, Higahsi-Osaka, Osaka 577-8502, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hitoshi","family":"Nakano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Science and Engineering, Kindai University, 3-4-1 Kowakae, Higahsi-Osaka, Osaka 577-8502, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kazuhiro","family":"Shimonomura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Science and Engineering, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Noji-Higashi, Kusatsu, Shiga 525-8577, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Taeko","family":"Ando","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Science and Engineering, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Noji-Higashi, Kusatsu, Shiga 525-8577, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Nguyen","family":"Ngo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Science and Engineering, Ritsumeikan University, 1-1-1 Noji-Higashi, Kusatsu, Shiga 525-8577, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yoshinari","family":"Kamakura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Engineering, Osaka University, 1-1 Yamada-oka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Vu","family":"Dao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, International University, Vietnam National University HCMC, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc District, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4198-4208","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anh","family":"Nguyen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electronics and Telecommunications, Hanoi University of Science and technology, 1 Dai Co Viet, Bach Khoa, Hai Ba Trung, Hanoi 100803, Vietnam"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Edoardo","family":"Charbon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced Quantum Architecture Laboratory, EPFL, Rue de la Maladiere 71b, CH-2002 Neuchatel 2, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5069-0124","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chao","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science, Delft University of Technology, Mekelweg 4, Delft, 2628 CD, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Piet","family":"De Moor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IMEC, Kapeldreef 75, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Paul","family":"Goetschalckx","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IMEC, Kapeldreef 75, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Luc","family":"Haspeslagh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"IMEC, Kapeldreef 75, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.3.000121","article-title":"Light-in-flight recording by holography","volume":"3","author":"Abramson","year":"1978","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.27.000815","article-title":"Observation of light propagation by holography with a picosecond pulsed laser","volume":"27","author":"Kubota","year":"2002","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1587\/elex.2.298","article-title":"Femtosecond motion picture","volume":"2","author":"Kubota","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEICE Electron. Express"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14348","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.15.014348","article-title":"Moving picture recording and observation of three-dimensional image of femtosecond light pulse propagation","volume":"15","author":"Kubota","year":"2007","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"74","article-title":"Single-shot compressed ultrafast photography at one hundred billion frames per second","volume":"516","author":"Gao","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Boil."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1601814","DOI":"10.1126\/sciadv.1601814","article-title":"Single-shot real-time video recording of a photonic Mach cone induced by a scattered light pulse","volume":"3","author":"Liang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Adv."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6021","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms7021","article-title":"Single-photon sensitive light-in-flight imaging","volume":"6","author":"Gariepy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1145\/2461912.2461928","article-title":"Femto-photography: Capturing and visualizing the propagation of light","volume":"32","author":"Velten","year":"2013","journal-title":"ACM Trans. Graph"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Etoh, T., and Mutoh, H. (2003). Back-Illuminated Image Device Having Signal Charges Suppressing Region. (7,345,268 B2 (JP 2003-000117)), US Patent."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Etoh, T.G., Nguyen, D.H., Dao, S.V.T., Vo, C.L., Tanaka, M., Takehara, K., Okinaka, T., Van Kuijk, H., Klaassens, W., and Bosiers, J. (2011, January 20\u201324). A 16 Mfps 165kpixel backside-illuminated CCD. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE International Solid- State Circuits Conference\u2014(ISSCC), San Francisco, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISSCC.2011.5746372"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Etoh, T., Yamada, T., and Dao, V.T.S. (2014). Solid-State Apparatus. (9,503,663 B2 (JP 2012-128368)), US Patent."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4640","DOI":"10.3390\/s130404640","article-title":"Toward One Giga Frames per Second\u2014Evolution of in Situ Storage Image Sensors","volume":"13","author":"Etoh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nguyen, A.Q., Dao, V.T.S., Shimonomura, K., Takehara, K., and Etoh, T.G. (2018). Toward the Ultimate-High-Speed Image Sensor: From 10 ns to 50 ps. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18082407"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"49","article-title":"Investigations in optics, with special reference to the spectroscope","volume":"5","year":"1879","journal-title":"Philos. Mag."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Etoh, T.G., Nguyen, A.Q., Kamakura, Y., Shimonomura, K., Le, T.Y., Mori, N., and Passaro, V.M.N. (2017). The Theoretical Highest Frame Rate of Silicon Image Sensors. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17030483"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tsuji, K. (2017). Evolution of high-speed image sensors. The Micro-World Observed by Ultra-High-Speed Cameras: We See What You Don\u2019t See, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-61491-5"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"543","article-title":"A high-speed video camera operating at 4,500 fps","volume":"46","author":"Etoh","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Inst. Telev. Eng. Jpn."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4100","DOI":"10.3390\/s100404100","article-title":"Ultra-High-Speed Image Signal Accumulation Sensor","volume":"10","author":"Etoh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dao, V.T.S., Ngo, N., Nguyen, A.Q., Morimoto, K., Shimonomura, K., Goetschalckx, P., Haspeslagh, L., De Moor, P., Takehara, K., and Etoh, T.G. (2018). An image signal accumulation multi-collection-gate image sensor operating at 25 Mfps with 32 \u00d7 32 pixels and 1,220 in-pixel frame memory. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18093112"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1117\/12.545019","article-title":"A Fast, High Resolution Imager for Nanosecond Light Pulse detections","volume":"5451","author":"Morel","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Sze, S.M., and Lee, M.K. (2016). Physics of Semiconductor Devices, John Wiley & Sons. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/0038-1101(77)90054-5","article-title":"A review of some charge transport properties of silicon","volume":"20","author":"Jacoboni","year":"1977","journal-title":"Solid-State Electron."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1063\/1.355849","article-title":"A Monte Carlo simulation of anisotropic electron transport in silicon including full band structure and anisotropic impact-ionization model","volume":"75","author":"Kunikiyo","year":"1994","journal-title":"J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Jones, M.H., and Jones, S.H. (2018, May 13). Optical Properties of Silicon 71502, Virginia Semiconductor Inc. Available online: https:\/\/www.univie.ac.at\/photovoltaik\/vorlesung\/ss2014\/unit4\/optical_properties_silicon.pdf."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Weber, G. (2018, May 13). X-Ray Attenuation & Absorption calcuLator. Available online: https:\/\/web-docs.gsi.de\/~stoe_exp\/web_programs\/x_ray_absorption\/index.php."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95910P","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2188336","article-title":"An overview of the Ultrafast X-ray Imager (UXI) program at Sandia Labs","volume":"9591","author":"Claus","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. SPIE"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pal1, P., Sato, K., and Chandra, S. (2007). Fabrication techniques of convex corners in a (100)-silicon wafer using bulk micromachining: A review. J. Micromech. Microeng., 17, R111\u2013R133.","DOI":"10.1088\/0960-1317\/17\/10\/R01"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2792","DOI":"10.1021\/nl2045777","article-title":"Efficient Light Trapping in Inverted Nanopyramid Thin Crystalline Silicon Membranes for Solar Cell Applications","volume":"12","author":"Mavrokefalos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nano Lett."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10843","DOI":"10.1038\/srep10843","article-title":"Maskless inverted pyramid texturization of silicon","volume":"5","author":"Wang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pal, P., and Sato, K. (2017). Silicon Wet Bulk Michromachining, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781315364926"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3832","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-04200-y","article-title":"IR sensitivity enhancement of CMOS Image Sensor with diffractive light trapping pixels","volume":"7","author":"Yokogawa","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Etoh, T.G., and Mutoh, H. (2009). Image Accumulation High-Speed Imaging Device. (A2011-082925), JP, (In Japanese)."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mochizuki, F., Kagawa, K., Ok ihara, S., Seo, M.-W., Zhan, B., Takasawa, T., Yasutomi, K., and Kawahito, S. (2015). Single-Shot 200Mfps 5x3-Aperture Compressive CMOS Imager, IEEE. ISSCC 2015, Digest of Technical Papers.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISSCC.2015.7062953"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, C., Dao, V.T.S., Charbon, E., and Etoh, T.G. (2017, January 20). Pixel parallel localized driver design for a 128 \u00d7 256 pixel array 3D 1Gfps image sensor. Proceedings of the 31st International Congress on High-Speed Imaging and Photonics, Osaka, Japan.","DOI":"10.1117\/12.2268877"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/10\/2247\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:52:09Z","timestamp":1760187129000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/10\/2247"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,15]]},"references-count":34,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,5]]}},"alternative-id":["s19102247"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19102247","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,5,15]]}}}