{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T03:40:22Z","timestamp":1760240422404,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":18,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,11]],"date-time":"2019-06-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1560211200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002380","name":"Hanyang University","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["HY-2015-G"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["HY-2015-G"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002380","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Distracted driving jeopardizes the safety of the driver and others. Numerous solutions have been proposed to prevent distracted driving, but the number of related accidents has not decreased. Such a deficiency comes from fragile system designs where drivers are detected exploiting sensory features from strictly controlled vehicle-riding actions and unreliable driving events. We propose a system called ADDICT (Accurate Driver Detection exploiting Invariant Characteristics of smarTphone sensors), which identifies the driver utilizing the inconsistency between gyroscope and magnetometer dynamics and the interplay between electromagnetic field emissions and engine startup vibrations. These features are invariantly observable regardless of smartphone positions and vehicle-riding actions. To evaluate the feasibility of ADDICT, we conducted extensive experiments with four participants and three different vehicles by varying vehicle-riding scenarios. Our evaluation results demonstrated that ADDICT identifies the driver\u2019s smartphone with 89.1% average accuracy for all scenarios and &gt;85% under the extreme scenario, at a marginal cost of battery consumption.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19112643","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,11]],"date-time":"2019-06-11T10:55:44Z","timestamp":1560250544000},"page":"2643","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Accurate Driver Detection Exploiting Invariant Characteristics of Smartphone Sensors"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6142-629X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"DaeHan","family":"Ahn","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Robotics Engineering, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyang-Daehakro, Ansan-si 15588, Gyeonggi-do, Korea"}]},{"given":"Homin","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"BIGHEART, National University of Singapore, MD6, 13 Medical Drive #14-01, Singapore 117599, Singapore"}]},{"given":"Kyoosik","family":"Shin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Robotics Engineering, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyang-Daehakro, Ansan-si 15588, Gyeonggi-do, Korea"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7924-1776","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Taejoon","family":"Park","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Robotics Engineering, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyang-Daehakro, Ansan-si 15588, Gyeonggi-do, Korea"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"National Safety Council (2015). Annual Estimate of Cell Phone Crashes 2013, National Safety Council."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Box, S. (2019, June 09). CELL PHONE TASK Risk of Crash or Near Crash event Light Vehicle\/Cars. Available online: https:\/\/www.arrivealive.co.za\/documents\/7-22-09-vtti-press_release_cell_phones_and_driver_distraction.pdf."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2019, June 09). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Available online: http:\/\/www.nhtsa.gov\/."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2019, June 09). Governors Highway Safety Association, Distracted Driving Laws. Available online: http:\/\/www.ghsa.org\/."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Yang, J., Liu, H., Chen, Y., Gruteser, M., and Martin, R.P. (2013). Sensing vehicle dynamics for determining driver phone use. Proceeding of the 11th Annual International Conference on Mobile Systems, Applications, and Services, Taipei, Taiwan, 25\u201328 June 2013, ACM.","DOI":"10.1145\/2462456.2464447"},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Chu, H.L., and Choudhury, R.R. (July, January 28). In-vehicle driver detection using mobile phone sensors. Proceedings of the ACM MobiSys, Washington, DC, USA."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Cheng, B., Jian, X., and Li, X.-Y. (2013). TEXIVE Detecting Drivers Using Personal Smart Phones by Leveraging Inertial Sensors. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ahn, D.H., Park, H., Hwang, S., and Park, T. (2017). Reliable identification of vehicle-boarding actions based on fuzzy inference system. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17020333"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2017.2724033","article-title":"Automatic Identification of Driver\u2019s Smartphone Exploiting Common Vehicle-Riding Actions","volume":"17","author":"Park","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Chu, H., Raman, V., Shen, J., Kansal, A., Bahl, V., and Choudhury, R.R. (2014, January 6\u201310). I am a smartphone and I know my user is driving. Proceedings of the COMSNETS, Bangalore, India."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Cheng, B., Jian, X., Li, X.-Y., Mao, X., Wang, Y., and Li, F. (October, January 30). You\u2019re Driving and Texting: Detecting Drivers Using Personal Smart Phones by Leveraging Inertial Sensors. 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Marriage Fam."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/11\/2643\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T12:57:34Z","timestamp":1760187454000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/11\/2643"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,11]]},"references-count":18,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,6]]}},"alternative-id":["s19112643"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19112643","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,11]]}}}