{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,8]],"date-time":"2026-05-08T06:17:33Z","timestamp":1778221053892,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":53,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,29]],"date-time":"2019-06-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1561766400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Indoor positioning technology has attracted the attention of researchers due to the increasing pervasiveness of smartphones and the development of sensor technology, along with the increase of indoor time. Sensor technology, which is one of the most commonly used data sources for indoor positioning, has the advantage that sensors can receive data from a smartphone without installing any additional device. However, the readings of built-in sensors are easily affected by the surrounding environment and are even occasionally different from each other which adversely influence the accuracy of indoor positioning. Moreover, once an error occurs, it can accumulate because there is not any reference point in the sensor, only in indoor positioning. In this paper, we present an accurate indoor positioning technology, which uses smartphone built-in sensors and Bluetooth beacon-based landmarks. Our proposed algorithm chooses proper one between values of sensors alternately based on their characteristics. It exploits landmarks as the reference points of indoor positioning. It also allows individuals to add the location where they repeatedly detect the same and special beacon received signal strength indicator values as a crowdsourced landmark. Extensive experimental results show that our proposed algorithm facilitates the acquisition of accurate heading direction and coordinates of the user.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19132891","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,1]],"date-time":"2019-07-01T03:23:59Z","timestamp":1561951439000},"page":"2891","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["IPSCL: An Accurate Indoor Positioning Algorithm Using Sensors and Crowdsourced Landmarks"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3911-5935","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Beakcheol","family":"Jang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hyunjung","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jong Wook","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, Sangmyung University, Seoul 03016, Korea"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"(2019, May 23). Available online: https:\/\/www.buildinggreen.com\/blog\/we-spend-90-our-time-indoors-says-who."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shayeganfar, F., Anjomshoaa, A., and Tjoa, A.M. (2008, January 9\u201311). A smart indoor navigation solution based on building information model and google android. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computers for Handicapped Persons, Linz, Austria.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-70540-6_157"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Macagnano, D., Destino, G., and Abreu, G. (2014, January 6\u20138). Indoor positioning: A key enabling technology for IoT applications. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE World Forum on Internet of Things (WF-IoT), Seoul, Korea.","DOI":"10.1109\/WF-IoT.2014.6803131"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1109\/2.940014","article-title":"Location systems for ubiquitous computing","volume":"34","author":"Hightower","year":"2001","journal-title":"Computer"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Misra, P., and Enge, P. (2006). Global Positioning System: Signals, Measurements and Performance, Ganga-Jamuna Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Brown, A.K., and Sturza, M.A. (1993). Vehicle Tracking System Employing Global Positioning System (gps) satellites. (5,225,842), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martin, E., Vinyals, O., Friedland, G., and Bajcsy, R. Precise Indoor Localization Using Smart Phones. Proceedings of the 18th ACM International Conference on Multimedia, Firenze, Italy, 25\u201329 October 2010.","DOI":"10.1145\/1873951.1874078"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1109\/2.901174","article-title":"Geolocation and assisted GPS","volume":"34","author":"Djuknic","year":"2001","journal-title":"Computer"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Husen, M.N., and Lee, S. (2014, January 9\u201311). Indoor human localization with orientation using WiFi fingerprinting. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Ubiquitous Information Management and Communication, Siem Reap, Cambodia.","DOI":"10.1145\/2557977.2557980"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1080\/17489720701781905","article-title":"Location determination using WiFi fingerprinting versus WiFi trilateration","volume":"1","author":"Mok","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Locat. Based Serv."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"86","article-title":"An Accurate Fingerprinting based Indoor Positioning Algorithm","volume":"12","author":"Choi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Eng. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1109\/TNET.2011.2165322","article-title":"IEEE 802.11 Saturation Throughput Analysis in the Presence of Hidden Terminals","volume":"20","author":"Jang","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE\/ACM Trans. Netw."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"508","DOI":"10.1109\/COMST.2018.2867935","article-title":"Indoor Positioning Technologies Without Offline Fingerprinting Map: A Survey","volume":"21","author":"Jang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2013.03.007","article-title":"Smartphone sensor data as digital evidence","volume":"38","author":"Mylonas","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yi, W., Jia, W., and Saniie, J. (2012, January 5\u20138). Mobile sensor data collector using Android smartphone. Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE 55th International Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems (MWSCAS), Boise, ID, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/MWSCAS.2012.6292180"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Widhalm, P., Nitsche, P., and Br\u00e4ndie, N. (2012, January 11\u201325). Transport mode detection with realistic Smartphone sensor data. Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR2012), Tsukuba, Japan."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1109\/THMS.2014.2368092","article-title":"Activity sequence-based indoor pedestrian localization using smartphones","volume":"45","author":"Zhou","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Hum. Mach. Syst."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1249\/01.MSS.0000126777.50188.73","article-title":"Motion sensor accuracy under controlled and free-living conditions","volume":"36","author":"Lemasurier","year":"2004","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exerc."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y., Francisco, J.A., Trappe, W., and Martin, R.P. (2006, January 28). A practical approach to landmark deployment for indoor localization. Proceedings of the 2006 3rd Annual IEEE Communications Society on Sensor and Ad Hoc Communications and Networks, Reston, VA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/SAHCN.2006.288441"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2774","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2015.2423326","article-title":"ALIMC: Activity landmark-based indoor mapping via crowdsourcing","volume":"16","author":"Zhou","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"12","article-title":"Google Android: An emerging software platform for mobile devices","volume":"1","author":"Gandhewar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Macario, G., Torchiano, M., and Violante, M. (2009, January 8\u201310). An in-vehicle infotainment software architecture based on google android. Proceedings of the 2009 IEEE International Symposium on Industrial Embedded Systems, Lausanne, Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1109\/SIES.2009.5196223"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, B., Elbadry, M., Gao, R., and Ye, F. (2017, January 6\u20138). BatTracker: High precision infrastructure-free mobile device tracking in indoor environments. Proceedings of the 15th ACM Conference on Embedded Network Sensor Systems, Delft, The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1145\/3131672.3131689"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27251","DOI":"10.3390\/s151027251","article-title":"Apfiloc: An infrastructure-free indoor localization method fusing smartphone inertial sensors, landmarks and map information","volume":"15","author":"Shang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1018628609742","article-title":"Least squares support vector machine classifiers","volume":"9","author":"Suykens","year":"1999","journal-title":"Neural Process. Lett."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-2312(01)00644-0","article-title":"Weighted least squares support vector machines: Robustness and sparse approximation","volume":"48","author":"Suykens","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neurocomputing"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Shen, C., Brooks, M.J., and Van Den Hengel, A. (2005, January 14). Augmented particle filtering for efficient visual tracking. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Image Processing, Genova, Italy."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1877","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2015.2480064","article-title":"A reliability-augmented particle filter for magnetic fingerprinting based indoor localization on smartphone","volume":"15","author":"Xie","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, S., and He, T. (2017, January 6\u20138). SmartLight: Light-weight 3D indoor localization using a single LED lamp. Proceedings of the 15th ACM Conference on Embedded Network Sensor Systems, Delft, The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.1145\/3131672.3131677"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Karlsson, N., Di Bernardo, E., Ostrowski, J., Goncalves, L., Pirjanian, P., and Munich, M.E. (2005, January 18\u201322). The vSLAM algorithm for robust localization and mapping. Proceedings of the ICRA, Barcelona, Spain."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2014.2319824","article-title":"GROPING: Geomagnetism and crowdsensing powered indoor navigation","volume":"14","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Noto, M., and Sato, H. (2000, January 8\u201311). A method for the shortest path search by extended Dijkstra algorithm. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man and Cybernetics \u2018Cybernetics Evolving to Systems, Humans, Organizations, and Their Complex Interactions\u2019, Nashville, TN, USA."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2007.06.004","article-title":"Monte Carlo localization for mobile wireless sensor networks","volume":"6","author":"Baggio","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bruno, L., and Robertson, P. (2011, January 21\u201323). Wislam: Improving footslam with wifi. Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation, Guimaraes, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2011.6071916"},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Robertson, P., and Bruno, L. (2015). Method for Localisation and Mapping of Pedestrians or Robots Using Wireless Access Points. (14\/345,284), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1840","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2012.2189785","article-title":"FootSLAM: Pedestrian simultaneous localization and mapping without exteroceptive sensors\u2014Hitchhiking on human perception and cognition","volume":"100","author":"Angermann","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1770","DOI":"10.1109\/TMC.2015.2478451","article-title":"SemanticSLAM: Using environment landmarks for unsupervised indoor localization","volume":"15","author":"Abdelnasser","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Mob. Comput."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, B., Li, Q., Mao, Q., and Tu, W. (2017). A robust crowdsourcing-based indoor localization system. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17040864"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1109\/TCE.2004.1277847","article-title":"Fundamental analysis for visible-light communication system using LED lights","volume":"50","author":"Komine","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Consum. Electron."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134","DOI":"10.1109\/JLT.2012.2225826","article-title":"An indoor visible light communication positioning system using a RF carrier allocation technique","volume":"31","author":"Kim","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Lightw. Technol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shu, Y., Cou\u00e9, P., Huang, Y., Zhang, J., Cheng, P., and Chen, J. (May, January 27). G-Loc: Indoor localization leveraging gradient-based fingerprint map. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE Conference on Computer Communications Workshops (INFOCOM WKSHPS, Toronto, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/INFCOMW.2014.6849189"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2424","DOI":"10.1109\/TIE.2015.2509917","article-title":"Gradient-based fingerprinting for indoor localization and tracking","volume":"63","author":"Shu","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.3390\/s150100715","article-title":"Fusion of WiFi, smartphone sensors and landmarks using the Kalman filter for indoor localization","volume":"15","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zou, H., Chen, Z., Jiang, H., Xie, L., and Spanos, C. (2017, January 27\u201330). Accurate indoor localization and tracking using mobile phone inertial sensors, WiFi and iBeacon. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE International Symposium on Inertial Sensors and Systems (INERTIAL), Kauai, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISISS.2017.7935650"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chawathe, S.S. (2009, January 4\u20137). Low-latency indoor localization using bluetooth beacons. Proceedings of the 2009 12th International IEEE Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems, St. Louis, MO, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITSC.2009.5309711"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Mendelson, E. (2015). Indoor and Outdoor Mapping and Navigation Utilizing RF Bluetooth Beacons. (9204257B1), U.S. Patent."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Shin, B., Lee, J.H., Lee, T., and Kim, H.S. (2012, January 24\u201326). Enhanced weighted K-nearest neighbor algorithm for indoor Wi-Fi positioning systems. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Computing Technology and Information Management (NCM and ICNIT), Seoul, Korea."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Machaj, J., Brida, P., and Piche, R. (2011, January 21\u201323). Rank based fingerprinting algorithm for indoor positioning. Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Indoor Positioning and Indoor Navigation, Guimaraes, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/IPIN.2011.6071929"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1109\/10.1354","article-title":"A robot with improved absolute positioning accuracy for CT guided stereotactic brain surgery","volume":"35","author":"Kwoh","year":"1988","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Yoshino, M., Haruyama, S., and Nakagawa, M. (2008, January 22\u201324). High-accuracy positioning system using visible LED lights and image sensor. Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE Radio and Wireless Symposium, Orlando, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"41","article-title":"An introduction to the kalman filter","volume":"8","author":"Bishop","year":"2001","journal-title":"Proc. SIGGRAPH Course"},{"key":"ref_52","unstructured":"G\u00fcvenc, \u0130. (2003). Enhancements to RSS based indoor tracking systems using Kalman filters. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of New Mexico]."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Shen, G., Chen, Z., Zhang, P., Moscibroda, T., and Zhang, Y. (2013, January 2\u20135). Walkie-Markie: Indoor pathway mapping made easy. Proceedings of the 10th {USENIX} Symposium on Networked Systems Design and Implementation ({NSDI} 13), Lombard, IL, USA."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/13\/2891\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:02:29Z","timestamp":1760187749000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/13\/2891"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,29]]},"references-count":53,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s19132891"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19132891","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,6,29]]}}}