{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T21:14:59Z","timestamp":1792790099505,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":47,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,5]],"date-time":"2019-07-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1562284800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Natural Science Basic Research Plan in Shaanxi Province of China","award":["2018JM1025"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2018JM1025"]}]},{"name":"the service local special plan project of Shaanxi Education Department","award":["17JF027"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["17JF027"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["11403018"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["11403018"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"the innovation project of Northwest University","award":["2019257"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2019257"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In the process of oil exploitation, the water level of an oil well can be predicted and the position of reservoir can be estimated by measuring the water content of crude oil, with reference for the automatic production of high efficiency in the oil field. In this paper, a visual measuring method for water content of crude oil is proposed. The oil and water in crude oil samples were separated by centrifugation, distillation or electric dehydration, and a water\u2013oil layered mixture was formed according to the unequal densities. Then the volume ratio of water and oil was analyzed by digital image processing, and the water content and oil content was able to be calculated. A new method for measuring water content of crude oil based on IGAVD (image grayscale accumulated value difference) is proposed, which overcomes the uncertainty caused by environmental illumination and improves the measurement accuracy. In order to verify the effectiveness of the algorithm, a miniaturization and low-cost system prototype was developed. The experimental results show that the average power consumption is about 165 mW and the measuring error is less than 1.0%. At the same time, the real-time and remote transmission about measurement results can be realized.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19132963","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,5]],"date-time":"2019-07-05T11:44:16Z","timestamp":1562327056000},"page":"2963","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["A Visual Measurement of Water Content of Crude Oil Based on Image Grayscale Accumulated Value Difference"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Qing","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information and Technology, Northwest University, Xi\u2019an 710127, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bo","family":"Chu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information and Technology, Northwest University, Xi\u2019an 710127, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jinye","family":"Peng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information and Technology, Northwest University, Xi\u2019an 710127, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0722-9556","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sheng","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Information and Technology, Northwest University, Xi\u2019an 710127, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"272","DOI":"10.1016\/j.marpolbul.2011.11.019","article-title":"Studies on water-in-oil products from crude oils and petroleum products","volume":"64","author":"Fingas","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mar. Pollut. Bull."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-003-1865-6","article-title":"The determination of water in crude oil and transformer oil reference materials","volume":"376","author":"Margolis","year":"2003","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jones, D.S.J. (2014). Introduction to Crude Oil and Petroleum Processing, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-05545-9_24-1"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2919","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.energyfuels.5b00280","article-title":"Non-contact measurement of the water content in crude oil with all-optical detection","volume":"29","author":"Zhi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Energy Fuels"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Makeyev, Y.V., Lifanov, A.P., and Sovloukov, A.S. (2009, January 14\u201318). On-line microwave measurement of crude oil water content. Proceedings of the 2009 19th International Crimean Conference Microwave & Telecommunication Technology, Sevastopol, Ukraine."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Makeyev, Y.V., Lifanov, A.P., and Sovlukov, A.S. (2014, January 7\u201313). Microwave measurement of water content in flowing crude oil with improved accuracy. Proceedings of the 2014 24th International Crimean Conference Microwave & Telecommunication Technology, Sevastopol, Ukraine.","DOI":"10.1109\/CRMICO.2014.6959712"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2018.01.211","article-title":"A microwave cavity resonator sensor for water-in-oil measurements","volume":"262","author":"Sharma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/0924-4247(94)00917-7","article-title":"Sensor for determining the water content of oil-in-water emulsion by specific admittance measurement","volume":"47","author":"Giallorenzo","year":"1995","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang, L., and Xiu, G.Y. (2008, January 26\u201329). Research on ultra short wave method to measure water content of crude oil. Proceedings of the 2008 9th International Conference on Signal Processing, Beijing, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICOSP.2008.4697766"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2216","DOI":"10.1117\/1.1783291","article-title":"High-accuracy low-water-content measurement of crude oil based on a near-infrared spectral absorption method","volume":"43","author":"Zhao","year":"2004","journal-title":"Opt. Eng."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11351","DOI":"10.3390\/s140711351","article-title":"A High Resolution Capacitive Sensing System for the Measurement of Water Content in Crude Oil","volume":"14","author":"Aslam","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aslam, M. (2014, January 3\u20135). Differential capacitive sensor based interface circuit design for accurate measurement of water content in crude oil. Proceedings of the 2014 5th International Conference on Intelligent and Advanced Systems (ICIAS), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICIAS.2014.6869504"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00731001","article-title":"Laboratory unit for distillation of crude oils and products","volume":"19","author":"Manovyan","year":"1983","journal-title":"Chem. Technol. Fuels Oils"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proche.2014.10.057","article-title":"Crude Oil Distillation with Superheated Water Steam: Parametrical Sensitivity and Optimization","volume":"10","author":"Samborskaya","year":"2014","journal-title":"Procedia Chem."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1080\/10916466.2015.1086881","article-title":"Quality versus economical aspects in determination of water in crude oils: Centrifuge method or potentiometric Karl Fischer titration","volume":"34","author":"Fernandes","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pet. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-2670(01)84291-4","article-title":"Determination of water by flow-injection analysis with the karl fischer reagent","volume":"114","author":"Cedergren","year":"1980","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"995","article-title":"Error Analysis on the Determination of Moisture in Oil by Karl Fischer Method","volume":"155","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Appl. Mech. Mater."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"751","DOI":"10.1109\/TIP.2016.2623484","article-title":"Multi-Modal Dictionary Learning for Image Separation with Application in Art Investigation","volume":"26","author":"Deligiannis","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Image Process."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"746","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-ipr.2016.0322","article-title":"Review, analysis and parameterisation of techniques for copy\u2013move forgery detection in digital images","volume":"11","author":"Dixit","year":"2017","journal-title":"IET Image Process."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Gonzalez, R.C., and Woods, R.E. (2018). Digital Image Processing, Pearson Education Ltd. [4th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.2166\/wst.1998.0564","article-title":"Development of a noncontact liquid level measuring system using image processing","volume":"37","author":"Takagi","year":"1998","journal-title":"Water Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Batagelj, V., Bojkovski, J., Pusnik, I., and Drnovsek, J. (2000, January 1\u20134). Automation of reading of liquid-in-glass thermometers. Proceedings of the 17th IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference, Baltimore, MD, USA."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1109\/19.997837","article-title":"Noncontact level sensing technique using computer vision","volume":"51","author":"Kasturi","year":"2002","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yu, C. (2014, January 19\u201323). Liquid level measurement by using an image method. Proceedings of the 2014 12th International Conference on Signal Processing (ICSP), Hangzhou, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICOSP.2014.7015408"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2008.10.006","article-title":"Liquid-level measurement using a single digital camera","volume":"42","author":"Wang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Eppel, S. (2016). Tracing Liquid Level and Material Boundaries in Transparent Vessels Using the Graph Cut Computer Vision Approach. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Evans, F., Volz, W., Dorn, G., Fr\u00f6hlich, B., and M Roberts, D. (November, January 27). Future trends in oil and gas visualization. Proceedings of the Conference on Visualization, Boston, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engappai.2010.04.002","article-title":"Petroleum well drilling monitoring through cutting image analysis and artificial intelligence techniques","volume":"24","author":"Guilherme","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eng. Appl. Artif. Intell."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8146","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2017.2714686","article-title":"Visualization of Gas-Oil-Water Flow in Horizontal Pipeline Using Dual-Modality Electrical Tomographic Systems","volume":"17","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, X., and Wang, X. (2017). Geovisualization for Association Rule Mining in Oil and Gas Well Data. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi6020048"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14129","DOI":"10.3390\/s121014129","article-title":"An embedded real-time red peach detection system based on an OV7670 camera, ARM cortex-M4 processor and 3D look-up tables","volume":"12","author":"Davinia","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190","DOI":"10.1016\/S1077-3142(03)00025-0","article-title":"Color image segmentation by pixel classification in an adapted hybrid color space. Application to soccer image analysis","volume":"90","author":"Vandenbroucke","year":"2003","journal-title":"Comput. Vis. Image Underst."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Loesdau, M., Chabrier, S., and Gabillon, A. (July, January 30). Hue and Saturation in the RGB Color Space. Proceedings of the Image and Signal Processing, Cherbourg, France."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"29","article-title":"YUV vs RGB\u2013Choosing a Color Space for Human-Machine Interaction","volume":"3","author":"Podpora","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comput. Sci. Inf. Syst."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1049\/iet-spr.2017.0272","article-title":"Contrast-based image enhancement algorithm using grey-scale and colour space","volume":"12","author":"Nandal","year":"2018","journal-title":"IET Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Hyun, M.K., Woo, S.K., and Dae, S.C. (2004, January 24\u201327). A new color transform for RGB coding. Proceedings of the 2004 International Conference on Image Processing, Singapore."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1874","DOI":"10.1631\/FITEE.1600017","article-title":"A two-stage parametric subspace model for efficient contrast-preserving decolorization","volume":"18","author":"Lu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Inf. Technol. Electron. Eng."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Podpora, M. (2009). YUV Vs RGB--A Comparsion of lossy compressions for human-priented man-machine interfaces. III SWD Conf. Proc., 1429\u20131533."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1007\/s10700-005-1892-1","article-title":"Fuzzy Relation Equations for Compression\/Decompression Processes of Colour Images in the RGB and YUV Colour Spaces","volume":"4","author":"Nobuhara","year":"2005","journal-title":"Fuzzy Optim. Decis. Mak."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"714","DOI":"10.7763\/IJCTE.2011.V3.397","article-title":"Comparative Performance Analysis of DWT-SVD BasedColor Image Watermarking Technique in YUV, RGB and YIQ Color Spaces","volume":"3","author":"Gunjal","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Theory Eng."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kekre, H.B., and Thepade, S.D. (2008, January 16\u201318). Color Traits Transfer to Grayscale Images. Proceedings of the 2008 First International Conference on Emerging Trends in Engineering and Technology, Nagpur, Maharashtra, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICETET.2008.107"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"806","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dsp.2009.10.008","article-title":"Detecting skin in face recognition systems: A colour spaces study","volume":"20","year":"2010","journal-title":"Digit. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1550008","DOI":"10.1142\/S0218625X15500080","article-title":"New approach to characterize the configuration of fractured rock surface indirectly","volume":"22","author":"Li","year":"2015","journal-title":"Surf. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1007\/s00371-008-0231-2","article-title":"An improved contrast enhancing approach for color-to-grayscale mappings","volume":"24","author":"Kuhn","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vis. Comput."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2004.1273918","article-title":"Learning to Detect Natural Image Boundaries Using Local Brightness, Color, and Texture Cues","volume":"26","author":"David","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Int."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/S0263-2241(00)00014-2","article-title":"Reliable tool wear monitoring by optimized image and illumination control in machine vision","volume":"28","author":"Pfeifer","year":"2000","journal-title":"Measurement"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sun, R., Ji, N., Guo, L., Tian, Y., and Chen, X. (2010, January 13\u201314). The Measurement System of the Water Content in Crude Oil. Proceedings of the 2010 International Conference on Measuring Technology and Mechatronics Automation, Changsha, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICMTMA.2010.380"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/13\/2963\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:02:50Z","timestamp":1760187770000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/13\/2963"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,5]]},"references-count":47,"journal-issue":{"issue":"13","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s19132963"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19132963","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,5]]}}}