{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,20]],"date-time":"2026-03-20T18:30:09Z","timestamp":1774031409531,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":22,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,20]],"date-time":"2019-07-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1563580800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61875047; 61505041"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61875047; 61505041"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Natural Science Foundation of Heilongjiang Province of China","award":["YQ2019F006"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YQ2019F006"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012226","name":"Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["none"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["none"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012226","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Financial Grant from the Heilongjiang Province Postdoctoral Foundation","award":["LBH-Q18052"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LBH-Q18052"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A photoacoustic spectroscopy (PAS)-based carbon monoxide (CO) gas sensor with a high-power laser and an enhanced gas absorption was demonstrated. The light source was a distributed feedback (DFB), continuous wave (CW) diode laser with a high output power of ~8 mW to give a strong excitation. The target gas received optical absorption enhanced two times by using a right-angle prism reflecting the laser beam. In order to reduce the noise from the background, wavelength modulation spectroscopy (WMS) and second-harmonic detection techniques were used. The modulation frequency and modulation depth were optimized theoretically and experimentally. Water vapor was added in the PAS sensor system to increase the vibrational\u2013translational (V\u2013T) relaxation rate of the CO molecule, which resulted in an ~8 times signal enhancement compared with the using of a dry CO\/N2 gas mixture. The amplitude of the 2f signal had a 1.52-fold improvement compared to the one with only one time absorption. The experimental results showed that such a sensor had an excellent linear response to the optical power and gas concentration. At 1 s integration time, a minimum detection limit (MDL) for CO detection of 9.8 ppm was achieved. The long-term stability of the sensor system was evaluated with an Allan deviation analysis. When the integration time was 1100 s, the MDL improved to be 530 ppb. The detection performance of such a PAS-based CO sensor can be further improved when a laser with a higher output power and increasing optical absorption times is used.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19143202","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,22]],"date-time":"2019-07-22T02:55:37Z","timestamp":1563764137000},"page":"3202","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["A Sensitive Carbon Monoxide Sensor Based on Photoacoustic Spectroscopy with a 2.3 \u03bcm Mid-Infrared High-Power Laser and Enhanced Gas Absorption"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Shunda","family":"Qiao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Tunable Laser, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9788-7984","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yufei","family":"Ma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Tunable Laser, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"}]},{"given":"Ying","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Tunable Laser, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"}]},{"given":"Xin","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Tunable Laser, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"}]},{"given":"Zhonghua","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on Tunable Laser, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2245-7565","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Frank K.","family":"Tittel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main Street, Houston, TX 77005, USA"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.97.1.165","article-title":"Management of carbon monoxide poisoning","volume":"97","author":"Llano","year":"1990","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-79-1-46","article-title":"Effect of low-level carbon monoxide exposure on onset and duration of angina pectoris: A study in ten patients with ischemic heart disease","volume":"79","author":"Anderson","year":"1973","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1140","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.156.4.96-08056","article-title":"Increased carbon monoxide in exhaled air of asthmatic patients","volume":"156","author":"Zayasu","year":"1997","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1016\/S0079-6123(08)62041-5","article-title":"Nitric oxide and carbon monoxide in the brain pathology of heat stress","volume":"115","author":"Sharma","year":"1998","journal-title":"Prog. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1126\/science.224.4644.54","article-title":"Carbon Monoxide in the earth\u2019s atmosphere: Increasing trend","volume":"224","author":"Khalil","year":"1984","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1103\/RevModPhys.58.381","article-title":"Applications of photoacoustic sensing techniques","volume":"58","author":"Tam","year":"1986","journal-title":"Rev. Mod. Phys."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1080\/00102200701421755","article-title":"Photoacoustic gas analysis using interferometric cantilever microphone","volume":"42","author":"Kuusela","year":"2007","journal-title":"Appl. Spectrosc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2914","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1147072","article-title":"Geometrical optimization of a longitudinal resonant photoacoustic cell for sensitive and fast trace gas detection","volume":"67","author":"Bijnen","year":"1996","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/S0039-9140(03)00418-1","article-title":"Photoacoustic spectrometry for trace gas analysis and leak detection using different cell geometries","volume":"62","author":"Gondal","year":"2004","journal-title":"Talanta"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2630","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.16.002630","article-title":"Photoacoustic cell design: Resonant enhancement and background signals","volume":"16","author":"Quimby","year":"1977","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1937","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1353198","article-title":"Application of acoustic resonators in photoacoustic trace gas analysis and metrology","volume":"72","author":"Hess","year":"2001","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Instrum."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.21.001008","article-title":"QEPAS based ppb-level detection of CO and N2O using a high power CW DFB-QCL","volume":"21","author":"Ma","year":"2013","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2114","DOI":"10.1364\/OL.42.002114","article-title":"Fiber-ring laser-based intracavity photoacoustic spectroscopy for trace gas sensing","volume":"42","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Lett."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"031107","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4974483","article-title":"Ultra-high sensitive acetylene detection using quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy with a fiber amplified diode laser and a 30.72 kHz quartz tuning fork","volume":"110","author":"Ma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.20.000995","article-title":"Two-mirror multipass absorption cell","volume":"20","author":"Altmann","year":"1981","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.41.000424","article-title":"Open multipass absorption cell for in situ monitoring of stratospheric trace gas with telecommunication laser diodes","volume":"41","author":"Durry","year":"2002","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14163","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.27.014163","article-title":"Highly sensitive acetylene detection based on multi-pass retro-reflection-cavity-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy and a fiber amplified diode laser","volume":"27","author":"Ma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jqsrt.2013.07.002","article-title":"The HITRAN2012 molecular spectroscopic databas","volume":"130","author":"Rothman","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transf."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6728","DOI":"10.1364\/AO.42.006728","article-title":"Wavelength modulation spectroscopy: Combined frequency and intensity laser modulation","volume":"42","author":"Schilt","year":"2003","journal-title":"Appl. Opt."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29356","DOI":"10.1364\/OE.25.029356","article-title":"Ppb-level detection of ammonia based on QEPAS using a power amplified laser and a low resonance frequency quartz tuning fork","volume":"25","author":"Ma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Opt. Express"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infrared.2005.09.001","article-title":"Wavelength modulation photoacoustic spectroscopy: Theoretical description and experimental results","volume":"48","author":"Schilt","year":"2006","journal-title":"Infrared Phys. Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1007\/s00340-016-6545-2","article-title":"Step-scan T cell-based differential Fourier transform infrared photoacoustic spectroscopy (DFTIR-PAS) for detection of ambient air contaminants","volume":"122","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"Appl. Phys. B"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/14\/3202\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:07:47Z","timestamp":1760188067000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/14\/3202"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,20]]},"references-count":22,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,7]]}},"alternative-id":["s19143202"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19143202","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,20]]}}}