{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,24]],"date-time":"2026-02-24T05:50:10Z","timestamp":1771912210747,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,24]],"date-time":"2019-07-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1563926400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Nos. 51878305, 51278185 and 51261120374"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Nos. 51878305, 51278185 and 51261120374"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) members have been widely employed as major structural members carrying axial or vertical loads and the interface bond condition between steel tube and concrete core plays key roles in ensuring the confinement effect of steel tube on concrete core. An effective interface debonding defect detection approach for CFSTs is critical. In this paper, an active interface debonding detection approach using surface wave measurement with a piezoelectric lead zirconate titanate (PZT) patch as sensor mounted on the outer surface of the CFST member excited with a PZT actuator mounted on the identical surface is proposed in order to avoid embedding PZT-based smart aggregates (SAs) in concrete core. In order to validate the feasibility of the proposed approach and to investigate the effect of interface debonding defect on the surface wave measurement, two rectangular CFST specimens with different degrees of interface debonding defects on three internal surfaces are designed and experimentally studied. Surface stress waves excited by the PZT actuator and propagating along the steel tube of the specimens are measured by the PZT sensors with a pitch and catch pattern. Results show that the surface-mounted PZT sensor measurement is sensitive to the existence of interface debonding defect and the interface debonding defect leads to the increase in the voltage amplitude of surface wave measurement. A damage index defined with the surface wave measurement has a linear relationship with the heights of the interface debonding defects.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19153248","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,24]],"date-time":"2019-07-24T10:48:19Z","timestamp":1563965299000},"page":"3248","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Experimental Study on Active Interface Debonding Detection for Rectangular Concrete-Filled Steel Tubes with Surface Wave Measurement"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8336-3306","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bin","family":"Xu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China"},{"name":"Key Laboratory for Intelligent Infrastructure and Monitoring of Fujian Province (Huaqiao University), Xiamen 361021, China"}]},{"given":"Lele","family":"Luan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}]},{"given":"Hongbing","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China"}]},{"given":"Jiang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China"}]},{"given":"Wenting","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Civil Engineering, Huaqiao University, Xiamen 361021, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.engstruct.2018.03.019","article-title":"Seismic performance modeling of concrete-filled steel tube bridges: Tools and case study","volume":"165","author":"Stephens","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eng. Struct."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Liu, P., Ho, G., Lee, A., and Yin, C. (2012, January 19\u201321). Tianjin Goldin Finance 117 Tower: The Solution to a Slender Geometry. Proceedings of the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH) 9th World Congress, Shanghai, China."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcsr.2011.08.002","article-title":"Effects of debonding on circular CFST stub columns","volume":"69","author":"Xue","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Constr. Steel. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/10\/3\/314","article-title":"Vibration-based damage detection in civil engineering: Excitation sources and temperature effects","volume":"10","author":"Peeters","year":"2001","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8667.2008.00546.x","article-title":"Performance of vibration-based damage detection methods in bridges","volume":"24","author":"Cruz","year":"2009","journal-title":"Comput. Aided Civ. Inf."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2019.05.062","article-title":"A multiplicative regularized Gauss-Newton method with trust region Sequential Quadratic Programming for structural model updating","volume":"131","author":"Mazzotti","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Pr."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2010.05.012","article-title":"A review of non-destructive techniques for the detection of creep damage in power plant steels","volume":"43","author":"Sposito","year":"2010","journal-title":"NDT Int."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1080\/00218468608074943","article-title":"The non-destructive testing of adhesively bonded structure: A review","volume":"20","author":"Guyott","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Adhes."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nima.2008.03.016","article-title":"X-ray based methods for non-destructive testing and material characterization","volume":"591","author":"Hanke","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"Rose, J.L. (1999). Ultrasonic Waves in Solid Media, Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-9399(2002)128:2(172)","article-title":"Use of Microwaves for damage detection of fiber reinforced polymer-wrapped concrete structures","volume":"128","author":"Feng","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Eng. Mech."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2008","DOI":"10.1177\/1045389X13488252","article-title":"Efficiency of electromechanical impedance for load and damage assessment along the thickness of lead zirconate titanate transducers in structural monitoring","volume":"24","author":"Annamdas","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Str."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"055026","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/19\/5\/055026","article-title":"Experimental characterization of periodic frequency-steerable arrays for structural health monitoring","volume":"19","author":"Senesi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1177\/1045389X10372003","article-title":"Damage detection in thin composite laminates using piezoelectric phased sensor arrays and guided Lamb wave interrogation","volume":"21","author":"Purekar","year":"2010","journal-title":"Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1177\/1475921707081979","article-title":"Pitch-catch active sensing methods in structural health monitoring for aircraft structures","volume":"7","author":"Ihn","year":"2008","journal-title":"Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsv.2006.01.020","article-title":"Guided Lamb waves for identification of damage in composite structures: A review","volume":"295","author":"Su","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Sound Vib."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Li, Y., and Du, G.F. (2018). Damage detection of L-shaped concrete filled steel tube (L-CFST) columns under cyclic loading using embedded piezoceramic transducers. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18072171"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Huang, Y., and Zheng, Y. (2018). A Feasibility Study on Timber Damage Detection Using Piezoceramic-Transducer-Enabled Active Sensing. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18051563"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/9\/4\/317","article-title":"Performance of smart piezoceramic patches in health monitoring of a RC bridge","volume":"9","author":"Soh","year":"2000","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/10\/3\/318","article-title":"Structural health monitoring from fiber-reinforced composites to steel-reinforced concrete","volume":"10","author":"Wang","year":"2001","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1016\/S1359-8368(01)00017-8","article-title":"Health monitoring of concrete structures strengthened with advanced composite material using piezoelectric transducers","volume":"32","author":"Saafi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Compos. Part B"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/15\/4\/009","article-title":"PZT-based active damage detection techniques for steel bridge components","volume":"15","author":"Park","year":"2006","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"847","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/17\/3\/033001","article-title":"Smart aggregate: Multi-functional sensors for concrete structures\u2014A tutorial and a review","volume":"17","author":"Song","year":"2008","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/16\/4\/003","article-title":"Concrete structural health monitoring using embedded piezoceramic transducers","volume":"16","author":"Song","year":"2007","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/19\/6\/065026","article-title":"Multi-functional smart aggregate-based structural health monitoring of circular reinforced concrete columns subjected to seismic excitations","volume":"19","author":"Gu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huo, L., Cheng, H., Kong, Q., and Chen, X. (2019). Bond-Slip Monitoring of Concrete Structures Using Smart Sensors\u2014A Review. Sensors, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19051231"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1007\/s13349-013-0039-2","article-title":"Detection of delamination between steel bars and concrete using embedded piezoelectric actuators\/sensors","volume":"3","author":"Zhu","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Civ. Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/09349847.2012.699609","article-title":"Non-destructive evaluation of corrosion in varying environments using guided waves","volume":"24","author":"Sharma","year":"2013","journal-title":"Res. Nondestruct. Eval."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/24\/11\/115039","article-title":"Bond slip detection of steel plate and concrete beams using smart aggregates","volume":"24","author":"Qin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/24\/12\/125026","article-title":"Bond slip detection of concrete-encased composite structure using shear wave based active sensing approach","volume":"24","author":"Zeng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Smart. Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ndteint.2012.12.009","article-title":"A dispersion compensation procedure to extend pulse-echo defects location to irregular waveguides","volume":"54","author":"Marzani","year":"2013","journal-title":"NDT E Int."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214301","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.118.214301","article-title":"Proof of Concept for an Ultrasensitive Technique to Detect and Localize Sources of Elastic Nonlinearity Using Phononic Crystals","volume":"118","author":"Miniaci","year":"2017","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2011.07.029","article-title":"Active interface debonding detection of a concrete-filled steel tube with PZT techniques using wavelet packet analysis","volume":"36","author":"Xu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Pr."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1435","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000632","article-title":"Active debonding detection for large rectangular CFSTs based on wavelet packet energy spectrum with piezoceramics","volume":"139","author":"Xu","year":"2013","journal-title":"ASCE J. Struct. Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsolstr.2017.05.040","article-title":"Multi-physical field guided wave simulation for circular concrete-filled steel tubes coupled with piezoelectric patches considering debonding defects","volume":"122","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Solids Struct."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2016.10.002","article-title":"Numerical study on the mechanism of active interfacial debonding detection for rectangular CFSTs based on wavelet packet analysis with piezoceramics","volume":"86","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Pr."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.12989\/sss.2017.19.2.181","article-title":"Wave propagation simulation and its wavelet packet analysis for debonding detection of circular CFST members","volume":"19","author":"Xu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Smart Struct. Syst."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"515","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2018.01.041","article-title":"Dominance of debonding defect of CFST on PZT sensor response considering the meso-scale structure of concrete with multi-scale simulation","volume":"107","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Sig. Process."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"145","article-title":"Numerical simulation on the stress wave propagation of steel-concrete composite structures with interface debonding by spectral element method","volume":"34","author":"Luan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eng. Mech."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125008","DOI":"10.1088\/1361-665X\/aae23b","article-title":"Numerical study on interface debonding detection mechanisms with 2D spectral element method for concrete-filled steel tube using embedded PZT sensor","volume":"27","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struct."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ostachowicz, W., Kudela, P., Krawczuk, M., and Zak, A. (2012). Guided Waves in Structures for SHM: The Time-Domain Spectral Element Method, John Wiley & Sons Ltd.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119965855"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsv.2015.11.004","article-title":"Determination and extraction of Rayleigh-waves for concrete cracks characterization based on matched filtering of center of energy","volume":"363","author":"FLee","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Sound Vib."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsv.2015.05.016","article-title":"Rayleigh to Lamb wave conversion at a delamination-like crack","volume":"353","author":"Schaal","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Sound Vib."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"055024","DOI":"10.1088\/0964-1726\/17\/5\/055024","article-title":"On the study of surface wave propagation in concrete structures using a piezoelectric actuator\/sensor system","volume":"17","author":"Song","year":"2008","journal-title":"Smart Mater. Struc."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577","DOI":"10.1177\/1475921712449508","article-title":"Impact localization in complex structures using laser-based time reversal","volume":"11","author":"Park","year":"2012","journal-title":"Struct. Health Monit."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.3389\/fmats.2019.00030","article-title":"Application of a laser-based time reversal algorithm for impact localization in a stiffened aluminum plate","volume":"6","author":"Miniaci","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Mater."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.12989\/sss.2017.19.4.371","article-title":"Monitoring degradation in concrete filled steel tubular sections using guided waves","volume":"19","author":"Beena","year":"2017","journal-title":"Smart Struct. Syst."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, H., Xu, B., Wang, J., Luan, L., Zhou, T., Nie, X., and Mo, Y.L. (2019). Interfacial Debonding Detection for Rectangular CFST Using the MASW Method and Its Physical Mechanism Analysis at the Meso-Level. Sensor, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/s19122778"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/15\/3248\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:08:54Z","timestamp":1760188134000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/15\/3248"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,24]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,8]]}},"alternative-id":["s19153248"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19153248","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,24]]}}}