{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,21]],"date-time":"2025-11-21T18:00:08Z","timestamp":1763748008399,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,30]],"date-time":"2019-07-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1564444800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Diabetes is a very complex condition affecting millions of people around the world. Its occurrence, always accompanied by sustained hyperglycemia, leads to many medical complications that can be greatly mitigated when the disease is treated in its earliest stage. In this paper, a novel sensing approach for the early non-invasive detection and monitoring of sustained hyperglycemia is presented. The sensing principle is based on millimeter-wave transmission spectroscopy through the skin and subsequent statistical analysis of the amplitude data. A classifier based on functional principal components for sustained hyperglycemia prediction was validated on a sample of twelve mice, correctly classifying the condition in diabetic mice. Using the same classifier, sixteen mice with drug-induced diabetes were studied for two weeks. The proposed sensing approach was capable of assessing the glycemic states at different stages of induced diabetes, providing a clear transition from normoglycemia to hyperglycemia typically associated with diabetes. This is believed to be the first presentation of such evolution studies using non-invasive sensing. The results obtained indicate that gradual glycemic changes associated with diabetes can be accurately detected by non-invasively sensing the metabolism using a millimeter-wave spectral sensor, with an observed temporal resolution of around four days. This unprecedented detection speed and its non-invasive character could open new opportunities for the continuous control and monitoring of diabetics and the evaluation of response to treatments (including new therapies), enabling a much more appropriate control of the condition.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19153347","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,30]],"date-time":"2019-07-30T11:15:56Z","timestamp":1564485356000},"page":"3347","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Early, Non-Invasive Sensing of Sustained Hyperglycemia in Mice Using Millimeter-Wave Spectroscopy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8865-2518","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Aldo","family":"Moreno-Oyervides","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic Technology, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Leganes, 28911 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Instituto de Investigaciones sanitarias de la Fundaci\u00f3n Jim\u00e9nez D\u00edaz (IIS-FJD), 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pedro","family":"Mart\u00edn-Mateos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic Technology, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Leganes, 28911 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Instituto de Investigaciones sanitarias de la Fundaci\u00f3n Jim\u00e9nez D\u00edaz (IIS-FJD), 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"M. Carmen","family":"Aguilera-Morillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Statistics, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Leganes, 28911 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Santander Big Data Institute, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Getafe, 28903 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Giacomo","family":"Ulisse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Physics Institute, Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, 60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8033-7444","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda C.","family":"Arriba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Investigaciones sanitarias de la Fundaci\u00f3n Jim\u00e9nez D\u00edaz (IIS-FJD), 28040 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER), 28029 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Epithelial Biomedicine Division, CIEMAT, Avenida Complutense 40, 28040 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Leganes, 28911 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mar\u00eda","family":"Durban","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Statistics, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Leganes, 28911 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marcela","family":"Del Rio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Investigaciones sanitarias de la Fundaci\u00f3n Jim\u00e9nez D\u00edaz (IIS-FJD), 28040 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER), 28029 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Epithelial Biomedicine Division, CIEMAT, Avenida Complutense 40, 28040 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Leganes, 28911 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6771-3561","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fernando","family":"Larcher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Investigaciones sanitarias de la Fundaci\u00f3n Jim\u00e9nez D\u00edaz (IIS-FJD), 28040 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Investigaci\u00f3n Biom\u00e9dica en Red de Enfermedades Raras (CIBERER), 28029 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Epithelial Biomedicine Division, CIEMAT, Avenida Complutense 40, 28040 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Leganes, 28911 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2387-1947","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Viktor","family":"Krozer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic Technology, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Leganes, 28911 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Physics Institute, Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, 60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8053-7363","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pablo","family":"Acedo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electronic Technology, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Leganes, 28911 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Instituto de Investigaciones sanitarias de la Fundaci\u00f3n Jim\u00e9nez D\u00edaz (IIS-FJD), 28040 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,7,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.7150\/ijms.3635","article-title":"Cancer and Radiation Therapy: Current Advances and Future Directions","volume":"9","author":"Baskar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. 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