{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,9]],"date-time":"2026-06-09T03:59:49Z","timestamp":1780977589470,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":75,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,21]],"date-time":"2019-08-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1566345600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007062","name":"Major League Baseball","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["0000"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0000"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007062","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"MIT Media Lab Consortia","award":["0001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["0001"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The standard technology used to capture motion for biomechanical analysis in sports has employed marker-based optical systems. While these systems are excellent at providing positional information, they suffer from a limited ability to accurately provide fundamental quantities such as velocity and acceleration (hence forces and torques) during high-speed motion typical of many sports. Conventional optical systems require considerable setup time, can exhibit sensitivity to extraneous light, and generally sample too slowly to accurately capture extreme bursts of athletic activity. In recent years, wireless wearable sensors have begun to penetrate devices used in sports performance assessment, offering potential solutions to these limitations. This article, after determining pressing problems in sports that such sensors could solve and surveying the state-of-the-art in wearable motion capture for sports, presents a wearable dual-range inertial and magnetic sensor platform that we developed to enable an end-to-end investigation of high-level, very wide dynamic-range biomechanical parameters. We tested our system on collegiate and elite baseball pitchers, and have derived and measured metrics to glean insight into performance-relevant motion. As this was, we believe, the first ultra-wide-range wireless multipoint and multimodal inertial and magnetic sensor array to be used on elite baseball pitchers, we trace its development, present some of our results, and discuss limitations in accuracy from factors such as soft-tissue artifacts encountered with extreme motion. In addition, we discuss new metric opportunities brought by our systems that may be relevant for the assessment of micro-trauma in baseball.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19173637","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,21]],"date-time":"2019-08-21T11:19:06Z","timestamp":1566386346000},"page":"3637","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":51,"title":["A Wide-Range, Wireless Wearable Inertial Motion Sensing System for Capturing Fast Athletic Biomechanics in Overhead Pitching"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Michael","family":"Lapinski","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Responsive Environments Group, MIT Media Lab, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carolina","family":"Brum Medeiros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Input Devices &amp; Musical Interaction Lab, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1E3, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Donna","family":"Moxley Scarborough","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sports Medicine Service, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eric","family":"Berkson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sports Medicine Service, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas J.","family":"Gill","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"New England Baptist Hospital, Boston, MA 02120, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Thomas","family":"Kepple","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"C-Motion Inc., Germantown, MD 20874, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joseph A.","family":"Paradiso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Responsive Environments Group, MIT Media Lab, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1177\/1941738112454828","article-title":"Prevention of Elbow Injuries in Youth Baseball Pitchers","volume":"4","author":"Fleisig","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sports Health"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1676","DOI":"10.1177\/0363546511411700","article-title":"Epidemiology of Major League Baseball Injuries","volume":"39","author":"Posner","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Carroll, W. (2019, February 27). The Alarming Increase in MLB Pitchers Who\u2019ve Had Tommy John Surgery. Available online: https:\/\/bleacherreport.com\/articles\/1699659-the-alarming-increase-in-mlb-pitchers-whove-had-tommy-john-surgery."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"982","article-title":"Epidemiology of Injuries Requiring Surgery Among High School Athletes in the United States 2005 to 2010","volume":"71","author":"Rechel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trauma"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"652","article-title":"Pitching mechanics, revisited","volume":"8","author":"Calabrese","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Sports Phys. Ther."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1068","DOI":"10.1177\/0363546519832525","article-title":"Epidemiology of Shoulder Surgery Among Professional Baseball Players","volume":"47","author":"Chalmers","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1368","DOI":"10.1177\/0363546510363402","article-title":"Correlation of torque and elbow injury in professional baseball pitchers","volume":"38","author":"Anz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Am. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"966","DOI":"10.2106\/JBJS.H.01341","article-title":"Shoulder injuries in the throwing athlete","volume":"91","author":"Braun","year":"2009","journal-title":"JBJS"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9290(93)90084-R","article-title":"A Sequential motions of body segments in striking and throwing skills: Descriptions and explanations","volume":"26","author":"Putnam","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"1","article-title":"Kinematic sequence patterns in the overhead baseball pitch","volume":"14","author":"Scarborough","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sports Biomech."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1177\/036354659502300218","article-title":"Kinetics of Baseball Pitching with Implications About Injury Mechanisms","volume":"23","author":"Fleisig","year":"1995","journal-title":"Am. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Waltz, E. (2019, August 20). Rocky Start for Wearables in Professional Sports Games. Available online: https:\/\/spectrum.ieee.org\/the-human-os\/biomedical\/devices\/rocky-start-to-wearables-in-professional-sports."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1109\/MSPEC.2016.7420400","article-title":"Silicon Gets Sporty","volume":"53","author":"Lightman","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Spectr."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arthro.2017.11.004","article-title":"Editorial Commentary: Changing Times in Sports Biomechanics: Baseball Pitching Injuries and Emerging Wearable Technology","volume":"34","author":"Fleisig","year":"2018","journal-title":"Arthroscopy"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"(2019, February 27). Vicon Website. Available online: http:\/\/www.vicon.com."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"(2019, February 27). Qualysis Website. Available online: http:\/\/www.qualisys.com."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1080\/19346182.2013.819008","article-title":"The potential of the Microsoft Kinect in sports analysis and biomechanics","volume":"6","author":"Choppin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Sports Technol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1109\/TAES.1979.308860","article-title":"Magnetic Position and Orientation Tracking System","volume":"5","author":"Raab","year":"1979","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Aerosp. Electron. Syst."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Cousins, S.J., Hannah, R.E., and Foort, J. (1979, January 26\u201331). A clinically viable electrogoniometer. Proceedings of the 2nd Annual Interagency Conference on Rehabilitation Engineering, Atlanta, GA, USA."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"Danisch, L.A. (2019, March 15). Patented Measurand Fiber Optic Sensors: Overview and Background Information. Available online: http:\/\/www.shapewrap.com\/shapewrap.html."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Dias, T. (2015). Wearable Sensors for Athletes. Electronic Textiles\u2014Smart Fabrics and Wearable Technology, Elsevier. Chapter 12."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Sawchik, T. (2019, February 27). Plethora of New Tools Shows Analytics\u2019 Growth in MLB. Available online: http:\/\/triblive.com\/sports\/pirates\/9952324-74\/pirates-analytics-tools."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Baard, M. (2019, August 16). Northeastern\u2019s Smart Shirt Aims to Prevent Pitcher\u2019s Elbow. Available online: http:\/\/archive.boston.com\/business\/technology\/articles\/2010\/03\/01\/northeasterns_smart_shirt_aims_to_prevent_pitchers_elbow\/."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2019, February 27). Xsens Technologies Website. Available online: http:\/\/www.xsens.com."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Synertial UK Ltd. (2019, February 27). IGS Motion Cobra Suit Website. Available online: https:\/\/synertial.com\/products\/suits\/."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Motus Global (2019, February 27). Motus Baseball. Available online: http:\/\/motusglobal.com\/motusbaseball.html."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3030","DOI":"10.1177\/0363546517719047","article-title":"The Relationship of Throwing Arm Mechanics and Elbow Varus Torque: Within-Subject Variation for Professional Baseball Pitchers across 82,000 Throws","volume":"45","author":"Camp","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"(2019, February 27). Figur8 Website. Available online: https:\/\/www.figur8.me\/."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1038\/scientificamerican0991-94","article-title":"The Computer for the 21st Century","volume":"265","author":"Weiser","year":"1991","journal-title":"Sci. Am."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"729","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9290(73)90029-8","article-title":"Accelerometry\u2014A Technique for the Measurement of Human Body Movements","volume":"6","author":"Morris","year":"1973","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Great Lakes Neurotechnologies (2017, August 14). Continuous Parkinson\u2019s Monitoring Using Wearables & App. Available online: http:\/\/glneurotech.com\/kinesia\/products\/kinesia-360\/."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Young, A.D., Ling, M.J., and Arvind, D.K. (2007, January 25\u201326). Orient-2: A realtime wireless posture tracking system using local orientation estimation. Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on Embedded Networked Sensors (EmNets \u201807), Cork, Ireland."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Comotti, D., Ermidoro, M., Galizzi, M., and Vitali, A. (2013, January 6\u20139). Development of a Wireless Low-Power Multi-Sensor Network for Motion Tracking Applications. Proceedings of the 2013 IEEE International Conference on Body Sensor Networks, Cambridge, MA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/BSN.2013.6575466"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arvind, D.K., and Bates, C.A. (2008, January 13\u201317). The Speckled Golfer. Proceedings of the ICST 3rd International Conference on Body Area Networks, Tempe, AZ, USA.","DOI":"10.4108\/ICST.BODYNETS2008.2956"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arvind, D.K., and Valtazanos, A. (2009, January 3\u20135). Speckled Tango Dancers: Real-Time Motion Capture of Two-Body Interactions Using On-body Wireless Sensor Networks. Proceedings of the Sixth International Workshop on Wearable and Implantable Body Sensor Networks, Berkeley, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/BSN.2009.54"},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"(2017, August 15). Sports Sensing Website. Available online: http:\/\/www.sports-sensing.com\/products\/sensor\/dspms.html."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1145\/3130927","article-title":"Activity Recognition for Quality Assessment of Batting Shots in Cricket using a Hierarchical Representation","volume":"1","author":"Khan","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. ACM Interact. Mob. Wearable Ubiquitous Technol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2016.11.008","article-title":"25 years of lower limb joint kinematics by using inertial and magnetic sensors: A review of methodological approaches","volume":"51","author":"Picerno","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1080\/17434440.2016.1198694","article-title":"Wearable inertial sensors for human movement analysis","volume":"13","author":"Iosa","year":"2016","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Med. Devices"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11556","DOI":"10.3390\/s101211556","article-title":"The use of wearable inertial motion sensors in human lower limb biomechanics studies: A systematic review","volume":"10","author":"Fong","year":"2010","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Camomilla, V., Bergamini, E., Fantozzi, S., and Vannozzi, G. (2018). Trends Supporting the In-Field Use of Wearable Inertial Sensors for Sport Performance Evaluation: A Systematic Review. Sensors, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/s18030873"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1186\/s40798-018-0139-y","article-title":"A Review of the Evolution of Vision-Based Motion Analysis and the Integration of Advanced Computer Vision Methods towards Developing a Markerless System","volume":"4","author":"Colyer","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sports Med. Open"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kleppner, D., and Kolenkow, R. (2013). An Introduction to Mechanics, Cambridge University Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139013963"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jshs.2012.06.004","article-title":"Baseball pitching kinematics, joint loads, and injury prevention","volume":"1","author":"Oyama","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Sport Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1371","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9290(99)00127-X","article-title":"Kinematic and kinetic comparison of baseball pitching among various levels of development","volume":"32","author":"Fleisig","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Lapinski, M. (2013). A Platform for High-Speed Biomechanical Data Analysis Using Wearable Wireless Sensors. [Ph.D. Dissertation, MIT]."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aylward, R., and Paradiso, J.A. (2007, January 25\u201327). A Compact, High-Speed, Wearable Sensor Network for Biomotion Capture and Interactive Media. Proceedings of the Sixth International IEEE\/ACM Conference on Information Processing in Sensor Networks (IPSN 07), Cambridge, MA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1236360.1236408"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1147\/sj.393.0511","article-title":"Design and Implementation of Expressive Footwear","volume":"39","author":"Paradiso","year":"2000","journal-title":"IBM Syst. J."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1109\/TITB.2007.899493","article-title":"Gait analysis using a shoe-integrated wireless sensor system","volume":"12","author":"Bamberg","year":"2008","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Technol. Biomed."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lapinski, M., Berkson, E., Gill, T., Reinold, M., and Paradiso, J.A. (2019, January 4\u20137). A Distributed Wearable, Wireless Sensor System for Evaluating Professional Baseball Pitchers and Batters. Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Wearable Computers (ISWC 2009), Linz, Austria.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISWC.2009.27"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lapinski, M., Feldmeier, M., and Paradiso, J.A. (2011, January 28\u201331). Wearable Wireless Sensing for Sports and Ubiquitous Interactivity. Proceedings of the 2011 IEEE SENSORS Conference, Limerick, Ireland.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2011.6126902"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"90","article-title":"IMU arrays: The biomechanics of baseball pitching","volume":"8","author":"Berkson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Orthop. J. Harv. Med. Sch."},{"key":"ref_53","unstructured":"Lapinski, M. (2008). A Wearable, Wireless Sensor System for Sports Medicine. [Master\u2019s Dissertation, MIT]."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robertson, G.E., Caldwell, G.E., Hamill, J., Kamen, G., and Whittlesey, S. (2013). Three-Dimensional Kinetics. Research Methods in Biomechanics, Human Kinetics. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.5040\/9781492595809"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9290(97)00101-2","article-title":"In vivo estimation of the glenohumeral joint rotation center from scapular bony landmarks by linear regression","volume":"31","author":"Meskers","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2004.05.042","article-title":"ISB recommendation on definitions of joint coordinate systems of various joints for the reporting of human joint motion\u2014Part II: Shoulder, elbow, wrist and hand","volume":"38","author":"Wu","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1123\/jab.23.1.42","article-title":"Effects of Upper Trunk Rotation on Shoulder Joint Torque Among Baseball Pitchers of Various Levels","volume":"23","author":"Aguinaldo","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Appl. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1123\/jab.17.2.164","article-title":"Relationship of Pelvis and Upper Torso Kinematics to Pitched Baseball","volume":"17","author":"Stodden","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Appl. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1123\/jab.28.5.491","article-title":"Adolescent Baseball Pitching Technique: Lower Extremity Biomechanical Analysis","volume":"28","author":"Milewski","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Appl. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2043","DOI":"10.1177\/0363546509336721","article-title":"Correlation of Throwing Mechanics with Elbow Valgus Load in Adult Baseball Pitchers","volume":"37","author":"Aguinaldo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2011.08.011","article-title":"Determining the optimal system-specific cut-off frequencies for filtering in-vitro upper extremity impact force and acceleration data by residual analysis","volume":"44","author":"Burkhart","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_62","unstructured":"(2019, February 27). C-Motion Website. Available online: https:\/\/www.c-motion.com\/products\/visual3d."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Medeiros, C.B. (2019, February 27). Investigating Soft Tissue Artifact in Baseball Pitch. Available online: www.carolinabrum.com\/baseball."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Fleisig, G.S., Escamilla, R.F., and Andrews, J.R. (2011). Applied Biomechanics of Baseball Pitching. Athletic and Sport Issues in Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation, Elsevier Saunders."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gaitpost.2004.05.002","article-title":"Human movement analysis using stereophotogrammetry. Part 3: Soft tissue artifact assessment and compensation","volume":"21","author":"Leardini","year":"2005","journal-title":"Gait Posture"},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Karlsson, D., and Lundberg, A. (1994, January 4\u20138). Accuracy estimation of kinematic data derived from bone anchored external markers. Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on 3D Analytical Human Movement, Stockholm, Sweden."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1142\/S0219519405001485","article-title":"A new technique for compensating the soft tissue artefact at the upper-arm: In vitro validation","volume":"5","author":"Cutti","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Mech. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiomech.2005.09.018","article-title":"In vivo validation of a new technique that compensates for soft tissue artifact in the upper-arm: Preliminary results","volume":"21","author":"Cutti","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2004.09.032","article-title":"Kinematical models to reduce the effect of skin artifacts on marker-based human motion estimation","volume":"38","author":"Cerveri","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2013.2291683","article-title":"Multiple-Model Linear Kalman Filter Framework for Unpredictable Signals","volume":"14","author":"Medeiros","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1927","DOI":"10.1109\/TBME.2007.903521","article-title":"Probabilistic inference of multijoint movements, skeletal parameters and marker attachment from diverse motion capture data","volume":"54","author":"Todorov","year":"2007","journal-title":"IEEE Trans Biomed. Eng."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Buffi, J., and Murray, W. (2013, January 4\u20137). Effect of forearm posture on the elbow varus torque generated by the flexor pronator muscles: Implications for the ulnar collateral ligament. Proceedings of the 37th Annual Meeting of the American Society of Biomechanics Conference, Omaha, NE, USA."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Servati, A., Zou, L., Wang, Z.J., Ko, F., and Servati, P. (2017). Novel Flexible Wearable Sensor Materials and Signal Processing for Vital Sign and Human Activity Monitoring. Sensors, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/s17071622"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3949","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2017.2705700","article-title":"Wearable Flexible Sensors: A Review","volume":"17","author":"Nag","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1097\/MAT.0000000000000784","article-title":"Stretchable Electronic Wearable Motion Sensors Delineate Signatures of Human Motion Tasks","volume":"64","author":"Garlant","year":"2018","journal-title":"ASAIO J."}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/17\/3637\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:12:44Z","timestamp":1760188364000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/17\/3637"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,21]]},"references-count":75,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s19173637"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19173637","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,21]]}}}