{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,2]],"date-time":"2026-06-02T14:29:06Z","timestamp":1780410546184,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,24]],"date-time":"2019-08-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1566604800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The development of cross-reactive sensor arrays for volatile organics (electronic noses, e-noses) is an active area of research. In this manuscript, we present a new format for barcoded polymer sensor arrays based on porous polymer beads. An array of nine self-encoded polymers was analyzed by Raman spectroscopy before and after exposure to a series of volatile organic compounds, and the changes in the vibrational fingerprints of their polymers was recorded before and after exposure. Our results show that the spectroscopic changes experienced by the porous spectroscopically encoded beads after exposure to an analyte can be used to identify and classify the target analytes. To expedite this analysis, analyte-specific changes induced in the sensor arrays were transformed into a response pattern using multivariate data analysis. These studies established the barcoded bead array format as a potentially effective sensing element in e-nose devices. Devices such as these have the potential to advance personalized medicine, providing a platform for non-invasive, real-time volatile metabolite detection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19173683","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,26]],"date-time":"2019-08-26T04:38:23Z","timestamp":1566794303000},"page":"3683","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["A Barcoded Polymer-Based Cross-Reactive Spectroscopic Sensor Array for Organic Volatiles"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Jessica E.","family":"Fitzgerald","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4351-4872","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jianliang","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, School of Biomedical Engineering, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325000, China"},{"name":"Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou 325000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7629-7080","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hicham","family":"Fenniri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA"},{"name":"Department of Chemical Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA"},{"name":"Department of Chemistry &amp; Chemical Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1038\/382697a0","article-title":"A chemical-detecting system based on a cross-reactive optical sensor array","volume":"382","author":"Dickinson","year":"1996","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bios.2004.08.050","article-title":"A microbead array chemical sensor using capillary-based sample introduction: toward the development of an electronic tongue","volume":"21","author":"Sohn","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6429","DOI":"10.1021\/ja9743405","article-title":"Solution-based analysis of multiple analytes by a sensor array: Toward the development of an electronic tongue","volume":"120","author":"Lavigne","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1038\/352047a0","article-title":"Artificial\u2019olfactory\u2019images from a chemical sensor using a light-pulse technique","volume":"352","author":"Erlandsson","year":"1991","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/0925-4005(94)87085-3","article-title":"A brief history of electronic noses","volume":"18","author":"Gardner","year":"1994","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"38","article-title":"Artificial noses","volume":"100","author":"Walt","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"15","article-title":"Human skin odor analysis by means of an electronic nose","volume":"64","author":"Paolesse","year":"2000","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1021\/jf0624695","article-title":"Colormetric sensor array for soft drink analysis","volume":"55","author":"Zhang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1605(96)01218-4","article-title":"Electronic nose for microbial quality classification of grains","volume":"35","author":"Jonsson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"750","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2007.09.060","article-title":"On field calibration of an electronic nose for benzene estimation in an urban pollution monitoring scenario","volume":"129","author":"Massera","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lungcan.2009.11.003","article-title":"An investigation on electronic nose diagnosis of lung cancer","volume":"68","author":"Pennazza","year":"2010","journal-title":"Lung Cancer"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1930","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)07552-7","article-title":"Volatile organic compounds in breath as markers of lung cancer: A cross-sectional study","volume":"353","author":"Phillips","year":"1999","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1093\/jb\/mvr090","article-title":"The scent of disease: Volatile organic compounds of the human body related to disease and disorder","volume":"150","author":"Shirasu","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lungcan.2008.05.020","article-title":"Exhaled breath analysis: Novel approach for early dectection of lung cancer","volume":"63","author":"Chan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Lung Cancer"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro823","article-title":"Electronic noses and disease diagnostics","volume":"2","author":"Turner","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cccn.2004.04.023","article-title":"Diagnostic potential of breath analysis\u2014Focus on volatile organic compounds","volume":"347","author":"Miekisch","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1136\/jcp.48.5.466","article-title":"Volatile organic compounds in the breath of patients with schizophrenia","volume":"48","author":"Phillips","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resp.2013.02.016","article-title":"Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) fingerprint of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"187","author":"Mazzatenta","year":"2013","journal-title":"Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.2217\/nnm.12.105","article-title":"Detection of Alzheimer\u2019s and Parkinson\u2019s disease from exhaled breath using nanomaterial-based sensors","volume":"8","author":"Tisch","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nanomedicine"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2007.05.043","article-title":"An electronic nose in the discrimination of patients with asthma and controls","volume":"120","author":"Dragonieri","year":"2007","journal-title":"Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4757","DOI":"10.1007\/s00216-014-7865-x","article-title":"Noninvasive detection of colorectal cancer by analysis of exhaled breath","volume":"406","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Anal. Bioanal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1021\/cn2000603","article-title":"Detection of multiple sclerosis from exhaled breath using bilayers of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and single-wall carbon nanotubes","volume":"2","author":"Ionescu","year":"2011","journal-title":"ACS Chem. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gardner, J.W., and Yinon, J. (2004). Electronic Noses & Sensors for the Detection of Explosives, Kluwer Academic Publishers.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4020-2800-7"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2652","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.92.7.2652","article-title":"A chemically diverse conducting polymer-based \u201celectronic nose\u201d","volume":"92","author":"Freund","year":"1995","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7928","DOI":"10.1021\/la053287s","article-title":"Vapor sensing using polymer\/carbon black composites in the percolative conduction regime","volume":"22","author":"Sisk","year":"2006","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(00)00548-7","article-title":"An electronic nose system to diagnose illness","volume":"70","author":"Gardner","year":"2000","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"024001","DOI":"10.1088\/1752-7155\/6\/2\/024001","article-title":"Microbial volatile compounds in health and disease conditions","volume":"6","author":"Thorn","year":"2012","journal-title":"Breath Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2009.06.054","article-title":"Optical-fiber arrays for vapor sensing","volume":"142","author":"Aernecke","year":"2009","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8649","DOI":"10.1039\/c3cs60179j","article-title":"Optical sensor arrays for chemical sensing: The optoelectronic nose","volume":"42","author":"Askim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"4641","article-title":"Identification of multiple analytes using an optical sensor array and pattern recognition neural networks","volume":"69","author":"Johnson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Differences"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2010.11.004","article-title":"Mimicking nature\u2019s noses: From receptor deorphaning to olfactory biosensing","volume":"93","author":"Glatz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Prog. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1016\/0925-4005(96)80098-0","article-title":"Metal oxide sensors","volume":"33","author":"Meixner","year":"1996","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1412","DOI":"10.1021\/ja0570335","article-title":"Multifunctional chemical vapro sensors of aligned carbon nanotube and polymer composites","volume":"128","author":"Wei","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2799","DOI":"10.1143\/JJAP.43.2799","article-title":"Surface acoustic wave sensors","volume":"43","author":"Shiokawa","year":"2004","journal-title":"Jpn. J. Appl. Phys."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"615","DOI":"10.1016\/S0956-5663(03)00259-8","article-title":"First results on label-free detection of DNA and protein molecules using a novel integrated sensor technology based on gravimetric detection principles","volume":"19","author":"Gabl","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/0956-5663(91)85014-N","article-title":"Development of chemical vapour sensor using SAW resonator oscillator incorporating odorant receptive LB films","volume":"6","author":"Chang","year":"1991","journal-title":"Biosens. Bioelectron."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sna.2008.07.023","article-title":"Mass sensitivity of multilayer thin film resonant BAW sensors","volume":"148","author":"Wingqvist","year":"2008","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators A Phys."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2006.11.011","article-title":"Multifrequency large amplitude pulse voltammetry: A novel electrochemical method for electronic tongue","volume":"123","author":"Tian","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2004.02.027","article-title":"A flow-injection electronic tongue based on potentiometric sensors for the determination of nitrate in the presence of chloride","volume":"101","author":"Gallardo","year":"2004","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-2670(97)00498-4","article-title":"An electronic tongue based on voltammetry","volume":"357","author":"Winquist","year":"1997","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-4005(03)00245-4","article-title":"Molecular modeling of polymer composite-analyte interactions in electronic nose sensors","volume":"93","author":"Shevade","year":"2003","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2191","DOI":"10.1021\/ac9511197","article-title":"Rapid analyte recognition in a device based on optical sensors and the olfactory system","volume":"68","author":"White","year":"1996","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5462","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1742-4658.2007.06078.x","article-title":"Optical-fiber bundles","volume":"274","author":"Gorris","year":"2007","journal-title":"FEBS J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1039\/b300617d","article-title":"Fluorescence-based fibre optic arrays: A universal platform for sensing","volume":"32","author":"Epstein","year":"2003","journal-title":"Chem. Soc. Rev."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"710","DOI":"10.1038\/35021028","article-title":"A colorimetric sensor array for odour visualization","volume":"406","author":"Rakow","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4528","DOI":"10.1002\/anie.200500939","article-title":"Molecular recognition and discrimination of amies with a colorimetric array","volume":"44","author":"Rakow","year":"2005","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3413","DOI":"10.1021\/ac970501b","article-title":"Generating sensor diversity through combinatorial polymer synthesis","volume":"69","author":"Dickinson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2595","DOI":"10.1021\/cr980102w","article-title":"Optical multibead arrays for simple and complex odor discrimination","volume":"100","author":"Albert","year":"2000","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1021\/cc050086y","article-title":"Spectroscopically encoded resins for high throughput imaging time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry","volume":"8","author":"Chun","year":"2006","journal-title":"Comb. Chem."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1002\/biot.200700236","article-title":"Multiplex pathogen detection based on spatially addressable microarrays of barcoded resins","volume":"3","author":"Blais","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biotechnol. J."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"192","DOI":"10.1021\/cc050128i","article-title":"Classification of spectroscopically encoded resins by Raman mapping and infrared hyperspectral imaging","volume":"8","author":"Fenniri","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Comb. Chem."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enzmictec.2011.04.003","article-title":"Recent advances in electronic and bioelectronic noses and their biomedical applications","volume":"48","author":"Oh","year":"2011","journal-title":"Enzym. Microb. Technol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcis.2007.11.030","article-title":"Chemically stable silver nanoparticle-crosslinked polymer microspheres","volume":"319","author":"Farah","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Colloid Interface Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2007.03.014","article-title":"Self-encoded polymer beads for microarray technologies","volume":"125","author":"Fenniri","year":"2007","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8151","DOI":"10.1021\/ja016375h","article-title":"Barcoded resins: A new concept for polymer-supported combinatoria library self-deconvolution","volume":"123","author":"Fenniri","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10546","DOI":"10.1021\/ja035665q","article-title":"Preparation, physical properties, on-bead binding assay and spectroscopic reliability of 25 barcoded polystyrene\u2014poly(ethylene glycol) graft copolymers","volume":"125","author":"Fenniri","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Am. Chem. Soc."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1021\/cc7001292","article-title":"Preparation and Infrared\/Raman Classification of 630 Specroscopically Encoded Styrene Copolymers","volume":"10","author":"Fenniri","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Comb. Chem."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4483","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-3773(20001215)39:24<4483::AID-ANIE4483>3.0.CO;2-4","article-title":"Towards the Dual Recursive Deconvolution (DRED) of Resin-Supported Combinatorial Libraries: A Non-invasive Methodology Based on Bead Self-Encoding and Multispectral Imaging","volume":"39","author":"Fenniri","year":"2000","journal-title":"Angew. Chem. Int. Ed."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6482","DOI":"10.1021\/la700701x","article-title":"Spectroscopically encoded microspheres for antigen biosensing","volume":"23","author":"Raez","year":"2007","journal-title":"Langmuir"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1016\/j.snb.2019.03.023","article-title":"Sensor arrays from spectroscopically-encoded polymers: towards an affordable diagnostic device for biomolecules","volume":"288","author":"Fitzgerald","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sens. Actuators B Chem."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tibtech.2016.08.005","article-title":"Artificial nose technology: status and prospects in diagnostics","volume":"35","author":"Fitzgerald","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3581","DOI":"10.1021\/ac902695n","article-title":"Si:WO3 sensors for highly selective detection of acetone for easy diagnosis of diabetes by breath analysis","volume":"82","author":"Righettoni","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Hasweii, S.J. (1992). Practical Guide to Chemometrics, Marcel Dekker, Inc."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Adams, M.J. (1995). Chemometrics in Analytical Spectroscopy, Royal Society of Chemistry."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Esbensen, K.H. (2002). Multivariate Data Analysis-In Practice, Camo Technologies. [5th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cplett.2004.06.011","article-title":"A new hybrid exchange-correlation functional using the Coulomb-attenuating method (CAM-B3LYP)","volume":"393","author":"Yanai","year":"2004","journal-title":"Chem. Phys. Lett."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8425","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1688752","article-title":"A long-range-corrected time-dependent density functional theory","volume":"120","author":"Tawada","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Chem. Phys."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2999","DOI":"10.1021\/cr9904009","article-title":"Quantum mechanical continuum solvation models","volume":"105","author":"Tomasi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Chem. Rev."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1283","DOI":"10.1002\/smll.200801398","article-title":"Robust Au-PEG\/PS microbeads as optically stable platforms for SERS","volume":"5","author":"Cho","year":"2009","journal-title":"Small"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12897","DOI":"10.1021\/jp901469w","article-title":"Single-molecule SERRS detection platforms obtained via galvanic displacement on silver fractals","volume":"113","author":"Fenniri","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Phys. Chem. C"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/17\/3683\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:13:45Z","timestamp":1760188425000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/17\/3683"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,24]]},"references-count":70,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s19173683"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19173683","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1424-8220","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,24]]}}}