{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,16]],"date-time":"2025-10-16T10:06:02Z","timestamp":1760609162492,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":33,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,31]],"date-time":"2019-08-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1567209600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>A simple sleep monitoring measurement method is presented in this paper, based on a simple, non-invasive motion sensor, the Passive InfraRed (PIR) motion sensor. The easy measurement set-up proposed is presented and its performances are compared with the ones provided by a commercial, ballistocardiographic bed sensor, used as reference tool. Testing was conducted on 25 nocturnal acquisitions with a voluntary, healthy subject, using the PIR-based proposed method and the reference sensor, simultaneously. A dedicated algorithm was developed to correlate the bed sensor outputs with the PIR signal to extract sleep-related features: sleep latency (SL), sleep interruptions (INT), and time to wake (TTW). Such sleep parameters were automatically identified by the algorithm, and then correlated to the ones computed by the reference bed sensor. The identification of these sleep parameters allowed the computation of an important, global sleep quality parameter: the sleep efficiency (SE). It was calculated for each nocturnal acquisition and then correlated to the SE values provided by the reference sensor. Results show the correlation between the SE values monitored with the PIR and the bed sensor with a robust statistic confidence of 4.7% for the measurement of SE (coverage parameter k = 2), indicating the validity of the proposed, unobstructive approach, based on a simple, small, and low-cost sensor, for the assessment of important sleep-related parameters.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19173773","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,2]],"date-time":"2019-09-02T03:16:12Z","timestamp":1567394172000},"page":"3773","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":15,"title":["Experimental Assessment of Sleep-Related Parameters by Passive Infrared Sensors: Measurement Setup, Feature Extraction, and Uncertainty Analysis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9909-0816","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sara","family":"Casaccia","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial Engineering and Mathematical Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Eleonora","family":"Braccili","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial Engineering and Mathematical Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lorenzo","family":"Scalise","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial Engineering and Mathematical Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3372-7543","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gian Marco","family":"Revel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Industrial Engineering and Mathematical Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1017","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(14)70172-3","article-title":"Connections between sleep and cognition in older adults","volume":"13","author":"Yaffe","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1097\/JGP.0b013e3181557b69","article-title":"Sleeping Well, Aging Well: A Descriptive and Cross-Sectional Study of Sleep in \u201cSuccessful Agers\u201d 75 and Older","volume":"16","author":"Driscoll","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1007\/s13311-012-0145-6","article-title":"Classification of Sleep Disorders","volume":"9","author":"Thorpy","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurotherapeutics"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Casaccia, S., Pietroni, F., Scalise, L., Revel, G.M., Monteri\u00f9, A., Prist, M.R., Frontoni, E., and Longhi, S. (2018, January 11\u201313). Health@Home: Pilot cases and preliminary results: Integrated residential sensor network to promote the active aging of real users. Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE International Symposium on Medical Measurements and Applications (MeMeA), Rome, Italy.","key":"ref_4","DOI":"10.1109\/MeMeA.2018.8438630"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Monteri\u00f9, A., Prist, M.R., Frontoni, E., Longhi, S., Pietroni, F., Casaccia, S., Scalise, L., Cenci, A., Romeo, L., and Berta, R. (2018). A Smart Sensing Architecture for Domestic Monitoring: Methodological Approach and Experimental Validation. Sensors, 18.","key":"ref_5","DOI":"10.3390\/s18072310"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Casiddu, N., Porfirione, C., Monteri\u00f9, A., and Cavallo, F. (2019). Smart Monitoring of User and Home Environment: The Health@Home Acquisition Framework. Ambient Assisted Living, Springer International Publishing.","key":"ref_6","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-04672-9"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"3784","article-title":"Unobtrusive online monitoring of sleep at home","volume":"2012","author":"Paalasmaa","year":"2012","journal-title":"Conf. Proc. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1007\/s10207-015-0286-9","article-title":"Understanding trust in privacy-aware video surveillance systems","volume":"15","author":"Rashwan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Inf. Secur."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"3273","article-title":"Automatic sleep staging based on ballistocardiographic signals recorded through bed sensors","volume":"2010","author":"Migliorini","year":"2010","journal-title":"Conf. Proc. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Soc."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alivar, A., Carlson, C., Suliman, A., Warren, S., Prakash, P., Thompson, D., and Natarajan, B. (2017, January 4\u20138). Motion Detection in Bed-Based Ballistocardiogram to Quantify Sleep Quality. Proceedings of the GLOBECOM 2017 IEEE Global Communications Conference, Singapore.","key":"ref_10","DOI":"10.1109\/GLOCOM.2017.8255014"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.csm.2004.12.008","article-title":"Sleep-wake and Other Biological Rhythms: Functional Neuroanatomy","volume":"24","author":"Stiller","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Sports Med."},{"unstructured":"(2019, February 21). III. SLEEP ASSESSMENT METHODS - Sadeh - 2015 - Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development Wiley Online Library. Available online: https:\/\/onlinelibrary.wiley.com\/doi\/full\/10.1111\/mono.12143.","key":"ref_12"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1053\/smrv.2001.0202","article-title":"Awakening from sleep","volume":"6","author":"Billiard","year":"2002","journal-title":"Sleep Med. Rev."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.5402\/2012\/768794","article-title":"Recent Developments in Home Sleep-Monitoring Devices","volume":"2012","author":"Kelly","year":"2012","journal-title":"ISRN Neurol."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tamura, T., and Chen, W. (2018). Ballistocardiography. Seamless Healthcare Monitoring: Advancements in Wearable, Attachable, and Invisible Devices, Springer International Publishing.","key":"ref_15","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-69362-0_8"},{"key":"ref_16","first-page":"2147","article-title":"Estimation of rest-activity patterns using motion sensors","volume":"2010","author":"Hayes","year":"2010","journal-title":"Conf. Proc. IEEE Eng. Med. Biol. Soc."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nikamalfard, H., Zheng, H., Wang, H., Mulvenna, M., McCullagh, P., and Jeffers, P. (2011, January 23\u201326). A sleep pattern analysis and visualization system to support people with early dementia. Proceedings of the 2011 5th International Conference on Pervasive Computing Technologies for Healthcare (PervasiveHealth) and Workshops, Dublin, Ireland.","key":"ref_17","DOI":"10.4108\/icst.pervasivehealth.2011.245948"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2018.00743","article-title":"A Critical Review of Consumer Wearables, Mobile Applications, and Equipment for Providing Biofeedback, Monitoring Stress, and Sleep in Physically Active Populations","volume":"9","author":"Peake","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moghavvemi, M., and Lu, C.S. (2004, January 24). Pyroelectric infrared sensor for intruder detection. Proceedings of the 2004 IEEE Region 10 Conference TENCON 2004, Chiang Mai, Thailand.","key":"ref_19","DOI":"10.1109\/TENCON.2004.1415018"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pinheiro, E., Postolache, O., and Gir\u00e3o, P.S. (2016, January 11\u201313). Ballistocardiogram: Model and sensing systems. Proceedings of the 2016 10th International Conference on Sensing Technology (ICST), Nanjing, China.","key":"ref_20","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSensT.2016.7796262"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8656","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2018.2869555","article-title":"Occupancy Detection and Localization by Monitoring Nonlinear Energy Flow of a Shuttered Passive Infrared Sensor","volume":"18","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6360","DOI":"10.1109\/JSEN.2018.2844252","article-title":"Unobtrusive Sensor-Based Occupancy Facing Direction Detection and Tracking Using Advanced Machine Learning Algorithms","volume":"18","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.12688\/wellcomeopenres.9892.2","article-title":"COMPASS: Continuous Open Mouse Phenotyping of Activity and Sleep Status","volume":"1","author":"Brown","year":"2017","journal-title":"Wellcome Open Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1088\/0967-3334\/29\/5\/004","article-title":"Differentiating between light and deep sleep stages using an ambulatory device based on peripheral arterial tonometry","volume":"29","author":"Bresler","year":"2008","journal-title":"Physiol. Meas."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.4306\/pi.2017.14.2.179","article-title":"Comparison of Wearable Activity Tracker with Actigraphy for Sleep Evaluation and Circadian Rest-Activity Rhythm Measurement in Healthy Young Adults","volume":"14","author":"Lee","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychiatry Investig."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1111\/1440-1703.1011","article-title":"On the use of r and r squared in correlation and regression","volume":"34","author":"Kasuya","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ecol. Res."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.1177\/1471301217691617","article-title":"Technology-based tools and services for people with dementia and carers: Mapping technology onto the dementia care pathway","volume":"18","author":"Lorenz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Dementia"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7192","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2019.2915095","article-title":"Novel IoT-Based Privacy-Preserving Yoga Posture Recognition System Using Low-Resolution Infrared Sensors and Deep Learning","volume":"6","author":"Gochoo","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmedinf.2018.12.006","article-title":"Integration of an in-home monitoring system into home care nurses\u2019 workflow: A case study","volume":"123","author":"Klemets","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Inform."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1097\/NXN.0b013e318296298f","article-title":"Evaluation of Health Alerts from an Early Illness Warning System in Independent Living","volume":"31","author":"Rantz","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. Inf. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1299","DOI":"10.1503\/cmaj.060792","article-title":"Sleep and aging: 1. Sleep disorders commonly found in older people","volume":"176","author":"Wolkove","year":"2007","journal-title":"CMAJ"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1177\/070674371005500704","article-title":"Sleep Pathologies in Depression and the Clinical Utility of Polysomnography","volume":"55","author":"Sculthorpe","year":"2010","journal-title":"Can J. Psychiatry"},{"doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Desjardins, S., Lapierre, S., Hudon, C., and Desgagn\u00e9, A. (2019). Factors involved in sleep efficiency: A population-based study of community-dwelling elderly persons. Sleep, 42.","key":"ref_33","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/zsz038"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/17\/3773\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:15:33Z","timestamp":1760188533000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/17\/3773"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,31]]},"references-count":33,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s19173773"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19173773","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,8,31]]}}}