{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,2]],"date-time":"2025-12-02T15:03:53Z","timestamp":1764687833029,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":40,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,6]],"date-time":"2019-09-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1567728000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100006595","name":"Unitatea Executiva pentru Finantarea Invatamantului Superior, a Cercetarii, Dezvoltarii si Inovarii","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PN-III P2-2.1- 198PED \u2044 2017","PN-III-P2 2.1 BG-2016-0296"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PN-III P2-2.1- 198PED \u2044 2017","PN-III-P2 2.1 BG-2016-0296"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100006595","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"European Commission, through the Education, Audio-visual and Culture Executive Agency","award":["2014-0855\/001-001"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2014-0855\/001-001"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Sensors"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study presents a detailed analysis of an air monitoring development system using quadcopters. The data collecting method is based on gas dispersion investigation to pinpoint the gas source location and determine the gas concentration level. Due to its flexibility and low cost, a quadcopter was integrated with air monitoring sensors to collect the required data. The analysis started with the sensor placement on the quadcopter and their correlation with the generated vortex. The reliability and response time of the sensor used determine the duration of the data collection process. The dynamic nature of the environment makes the technique of air monitoring of topmost concern. The pattern method has been adapted to the data collection process in which area scanning was marked using a point of interest or grid point. The experiments were done by manipulating a carbon monoxide (CO) source, with data readings being made in two ways: point source with eight sampling points arranged in a square pattern, and non-point source with 24 sampling points in a grid pattern. The quadcopter collected data while in a hover state with 10 s sampling times at each point. The analysis of variance method (ANOVA) was also used as the statistical algorithm to analyze the vector of gas dispersion. In order to tackle the uncertainty of wind, a bivariate Gaussian kernel analysis was used to get an estimation of the gas source area. The result showed that the grid pattern measurement was useful in obtaining more accurate data of the gas source location and the gas concentration. The vortex field generated by the propeller was used to speed up the accumulation of the gas particles to the sensor. The dynamic nature of the wind caused the gas flow vector to change constantly. Thus, more sampling points were preferred, to improve the accuracy of the gas source location prediction.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/s19183849","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,6]],"date-time":"2019-09-06T02:59:22Z","timestamp":1567738762000},"page":"3849","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":29,"title":["The Design and Experimental Development of Air Scanning Using a Sniffer Quadcopter"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Endrowednes","family":"Kuantama","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, Pelita Harapan University, Tangerang 15811, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1061-7552","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Radu","family":"Tarca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechatronics Department, University of Oradea, 1 Universitatii St., Oradea 410087, Romania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Simona","family":"Dzitac","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Energy Engineering Department, University of Oradea, 1 Universitatii St., Oradea 410087, Romania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ioan","family":"Dzitac","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Mathematics, Computer Science, Aurel Vlaicu University of Arad, St. Elena Dragoi, Arad 310330, Romania"},{"name":"R &amp; D Center: \u201cCercetare Dezvoltare Agora\u201d, Agora University of Oradea, St. Piata Tineretului, Oradea 410087, Romania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tiberiu","family":"Vesselenyi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechatronics Department, University of Oradea, 1 Universitatii St., Oradea 410087, Romania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5880-6136","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ioan","family":"Tarca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical Engineering and Automotive Department, University of Oradea, 1 Universitatii St., Oradea 410087, Romania"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2006). Risk Assessment of Selected Pollutants, Air Quality Guidelines: Global Update 2005, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"European Economic Area (2017). Air Quality in Europe, European Environment Agency."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4877","DOI":"10.1016\/S1352-2310(99)00290-3","article-title":"Urban Air Quality","volume":"33","author":"Fenger","year":"1999","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2399","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atmosenv.2004.06.049","article-title":"Establishing an air pollution monitoring network for intra-urban population exposure assessment: A location-allocation approach","volume":"39","author":"Kanaroglou","year":"2005","journal-title":"Atmos. Environ."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-009-0755-6","article-title":"Volatile organic compounds in air at urban and industrial areas in the Tarragona region by thermal desorption and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry","volume":"161","author":"Ras","year":"2010","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"320","DOI":"10.1080\/10473289.1995.10467369","article-title":"Measurement methods to determine compliance with ambient air quality standards for suspended particles","volume":"45","author":"Chow","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11369","DOI":"10.1021\/es4022602","article-title":"The changing paradigm of air pollution monitoring","volume":"47","author":"Snyder","year":"2013","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2011.2181683","article-title":"Robots for environmental monitoring: Significant advancements and applications","volume":"19","author":"Dunbabin","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Mag."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocon.2016.03.027","article-title":"Seeing the forest from drones: Testing the potential of lightweight drones as a tool for long-term forest monitoring","volume":"198","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biol. Conserv. J."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2012.2184671","article-title":"Autonomous gas-sensitive microdrone: Wind vector estimation and gas dispersion mapping","volume":"19","author":"Neumann","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Robot. Autom. Mag."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3334","DOI":"10.3390\/s150203334","article-title":"A mini-UAV based sensory system for measuring environmental variables in greenhouses","volume":"15","author":"Juan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buters, T.M., Bateman, P.W., Robinson, T., Belton, D., Dixon, K.W., and Cross, A.T. (2019). Methodological Ambiguity and Inconsistency Constrain Unmanned Aerial Vehicles as A Silver Bullet for Monitoring Ecological Restoration. Remote. Sens., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs11101180"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copbio.2017.01.009","article-title":"Environmental monitoring using autonomous vehicles: A survey of recent searching techniques","volume":"45","author":"Bayat","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2016.10.132","article-title":"Multicopter platform prototype for environmental monitoring","volume":"155","author":"Anweiler","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.03.252","article-title":"Can drones be used to conduct water sampling in aquatic environments? A review","volume":"670","author":"Lally","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2015.01.109","article-title":"Photogrammetry for environmental monitoring: The use of drones and hydrological models for detection of soil contaminated by copper","volume":"514","author":"Capolupo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2019.01.151","article-title":"The uses of unmanned aerial vehicles\u2014UAV\u2019s (or drones) in social logistic: Natural disasters response and humanitarian relief aid, ICTE in Transportation and Logistics 2018 (ICTE 2018)","volume":"149","author":"Estrada","year":"2019","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2017.05.063","article-title":"Fast and safe gas detection from underground coal fire by drone fly over","volume":"29","author":"Dunnington","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Villa, T.F. (2016). Development and validation of a UAV based system for air pollution measurements. Sens. J., 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/s16122202"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"169","article-title":"Review of small commercial sensors for indicative monitoring of ambient","volume":"30","author":"Manuel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chem. Eng. Trans. J."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kristiansen, R., Oland, E., and Narayanachar, D. (2012, January 2\u20135). Operational concepts in UAV formation monitoring of industrial emissions. Proceedings of the IEEE 3rd International Conference on Cognitive Infocommunications, Kosice, Slovakia.","DOI":"10.1109\/CogInfoCom.2012.6422003"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.14358\/PERS.69.4.391","article-title":"Demonstrating UAV-Acquired Real-Time Thermal Data over Fires","volume":"69","author":"Ambrosia","year":"2003","journal-title":"Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sens."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhi, Z. (2018). Data-driven hazardous gas dispersion modeling using the integrating of particle filtering and error propagation detection. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15081640"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Zhao, Y. (2016, January 5\u20138). Gaussian processes for flow modeling and prediction of positioned trajectories evaluated with sports data. Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Information Fusion, Heidelberg, Germany."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1016\/j.proche.2009.07.120","article-title":"Statistical evaluation of the kernel DM+V\/W algorithm for building gas distribution maps in uncontrolled environments","volume":"1","author":"Reggente","year":"2009","journal-title":"Procedia Chem."},{"key":"ref_26","first-page":"336","article-title":"Gas distribution modeling using sparse Gaussian process mixture models","volume":"4","author":"Brock","year":"2009","journal-title":"Robot. Sci. Syst."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLI-B1-971-2016","article-title":"Budget UAV systems for the prospection of small and medium scale archaeological sites","volume":"41","author":"Ostrowski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.5194\/isprsarchives-XL-1-W4-61-2015","article-title":"Photogrammetric mission planner for RPAS","volume":"40","author":"Gandor","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Y\u0131ld\u0131r\u0131m, \u015e., \u00c7abuk, N., and Bak\u0131rc\u0131o\u011flu, V. (2019). Design and Trajectory Control of Universal Drone System. Measurement.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.measurement.2019.07.062"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.paerosci.2012.06.001","article-title":"Applications of the unsteady vortex-lattice method in aircraft aeroelasticity and flight dynamics","volume":"55","author":"Murua","year":"2012","journal-title":"Prog. Aerosp. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/478457","article-title":"Computational study of a transverse rotor aircraft in hover using the unsteady vortex lattice method","volume":"2015","author":"Colmenares","year":"2015","journal-title":"Math. Probl. Eng."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"269","article-title":"Quadcopter propeller design and performance analysis","volume":"Volume 46","author":"Kuantama","year":"2016","journal-title":"New Advances in Mechanisms, Mechanical Transmissions and Robotics. Mechanisms and Machine Science"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kuantama, E. (2018). Flight Stability Analysis of a Symmetrically Structured Quadcopter Based on Thrust Data Logger Information. Symmetry, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/sym10070291"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.egypro.2013.06.320","article-title":"Monitoring of CCS areas using Micro Unmanned Aerial (MUAVs)","volume":"37","author":"Neumann","year":"2013","journal-title":"Energy Procedia-Elsevier J."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19667","DOI":"10.3390\/s150819667","article-title":"Towards the development of a low-cost airborne sensing system to monitor dust particles after blasting at open-pit mine sites","volume":"155","author":"Alvarado","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sens. J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/j.robot.2004.05.002","article-title":"Building gas concentration grid maps with a mobile robot","volume":"48","author":"Lilienthal","year":"2004","journal-title":"Robot. Auton. Syst."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1007\/s10514-011-9219-2","article-title":"Odour source localization using a mobile robot in outdoor airflow environments with a particle filter algorithm","volume":"30","author":"Li","year":"2011","journal-title":"Auton. Robot."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lilienthal, A.J., Reggente, M., and Trincavelli, M. (2009, January 10\u201315). A statistical approach to gas dispersion modelling with mobile robots\u2014The Kernel DM+V Algorithm. Proceedings of the International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, St. Louis, MO, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2009.5354304"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Neumann, P. (2011, January 25\u201330). An artificial potential field-based sampling strategy for a gas sensitive micro-drone. Proceedings of the IROS-Workshop Robotics for Environmental Monitoring, San Francisco, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reggente, M., and Lilienthal, A.J. (2010, January 1\u20134). The 3D-Kernel DM+V\/W algorithm: Using wind information in three-dimensional gas dispersion modelling with a mobile robot. Proceedings of the IEEE Sensors, Kona, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICSENS.2010.5690924"}],"container-title":["Sensors"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/18\/3849\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T13:17:22Z","timestamp":1760188642000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1424-8220\/19\/18\/3849"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,6]]},"references-count":40,"journal-issue":{"issue":"18","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,9]]}},"alternative-id":["s19183849"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/s19183849","relation":{},"ISSN":["1424-8220"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1424-8220"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,9,6]]}}}